Download 1 CHAPTER 18: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION: Focus Questions: 1

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CHAPTER 18: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION:
Focus Questions:
1- What were the causes of the French Revolution?
2- How did popular uprisings shape the first stage of the French Revolution?
3- Why did the French Revolution become more radical?
4- How did Napoleon centralize his authority?
5- What led to Napoleon’s downfall?
French Revolution: An Overview:
Stages of revolution:
1.The First French Revolution: 1789-1792, constitutional and relatively peaceful.
2.The Second French Revolution: 1792-1794, crisis and consolidation, the tensions exploded into war and
the monarchy fell, to be replaced with republic. The Terror, did save the republic, but it exhausted itself.
3. The Directory: 1794-1799
4. Napoleonic era, 1799-1815
Q1: WHAT WERE THE CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION?
- Class analysis of the revolution, not satisfactory: a rising bourgeoisie overthrow the aristocratic order.
- a new elite or social group: that brought together aristocrats, officeholders, professionals, and to a
lesser degree merchants, and businessmen.
- Three estates: 1. Clergy, 2. Nobility, 3. Everyone else
- nobility of the swords, nobility of the robe.
- bourgeoisie-nobility: blurred boundaries: much bourgeois wealth was transformed into noble wealth.
- making it more difficult to buy one’s into the nobility. Several fault lines ran through the elite and the
middle classes.
- a general price rise during much of the eighteenth-century.
- unemployment
- peasants’ obligation to landlords, church and state
- direct and indirect taxes
- forced labor
- Louis XVI, reforms
Q2- HOW DID POPULAR UPRISINGS SHAPE THE FIRST STAGE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION?
- The fiscal crisis precipitated the revolution
- a series of reforms to save off bankruptcy
- new taxes
- economic hardships and financial chaos.
- Louis XVI summoned the Estates General to meet in 1789.
- Long-term grievances and short-term hardships had produced bread riots
- Third Estate: though elected by assemblies chosen in turn by artisans and peasants, represented the
outlook of the elite.
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- Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly.
- The Oath of the Tennis Court, the beginning of the French Revolution.
THE FIRST STAGES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION:
June 1789 to August 1792: This stage was moderate, its actions dominated by the leadership of liberal
nobles and men of the Third Estate.
Popular Revolts:
- The common people referred as sans-culottes.
- provisional municipal government, militia of volunteers
- Bastille, an ancient fortress, served as a prison, symbolized hated royal authority.
1- The fall of the Bastille was the first instance of the people’s role in revolutionary change.
2- Second popular revolt occurred in the countryside. Peasants feared a monarchical and aristocratic
counterrevolution.
3- October Days, economic crisis, Parisian women from the market district.
- The creation of National Assembly:
Abolishing all forms of privilege. The church tithe, the labor requirement, hunting privilege, tax
exemptions and monopolies, sales of offices.
The National Assembly and the Liberal Revolution:
- its charter of liberties, The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
- property to be a natural right, along with liberty, security, and resistance to oppression. Freedom of
speech, religious toleration, liberty of the press.
- The Declaration became the preamble to the new constitution, which the Assembly finished in 1791.
- citizen=? Active citizens, passive citizens
- NA resolved to confiscate the lands of the church.
Q3- WHY DID THE FRENCH REVOLUTION BECOME MORE RADICAL?
- moderate leaders toppled, much more radical republicans claiming to rule on behalf of the common
people.
-Changes in popular politics, a crisis of leadership, and international polarization.
1. The revolution produced a remarkable politicization of the common people, especially in cities.
2. A lack of effective national leadership. Louis XVI weak monarch.
3. War
The Counterrevolution:
- Austria and Prussia declared that restoring order and the right of monarchs of France was a matter of
common interest to all sovereigns of Europe.
August 10 1792: crowds attacked the royal palace. The king was imprisoned and a second and far more
radical revolution began.
The Jacobins:
- the more egalitarian leaders of the Third Esate.
- professionals, government officeholders, and lawyers, spokesmen of the people and the nation.
A National Convention, elected by free white men, governing body for the next three years.
- Convention declared France a republic, placed the king on trial.
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- the social program of the Convention.
- reorganization of armies.
- the allied coalition against France: Britain, Holland, Spain, Austira.
The Reign of Terror:
- 1793 drafting a new democratic constitution based on male suffrage.
- The Committee of Public Safety: twelve people. Marat, Danton, Robespierre, the latter two member of
CPS.
The Legacy of the Second French Revolution:
1. revolutionary enthusiasm affected the everyday life of French men.
2. the radical revolution of 1792-1793 reversed the trend toward decentralization.
3. eroded the strength of traditional institutions, church, guild, parish. Loyalty to one nation.
- Counterrevolutionary movements were popular.
- The revolution divided France.
Q4- HOW DID NAPOLEON CENTRALIZE HIS AUTHORITY?
Consolidating Authority: 1799-1804:
- consolidated personal power
- A new constitution established universal white male suffrage.
- an authoritarian device, the plebiscite, which put a question directly to popular vote.
- centralization of the administrative departments.
- orderly and fair system of taxation. More efficient tax collection and fiscal management.
- Napoleon’s state was a point midway between absolutism and the modern state.
Law, Education and the New Elite:
1. Legal Reforms- The Napoleonic Code: promulgation of a new legal code in 1804: a uniform law.
- importance of paternal authority.
2. rationalization of educational system.
3.the new schools helped confirm the power of a new elite: businessmen, bankers, and merchants.
4. put an end to the hostility between French state and the Catholic church.
- 1804: finally cast aside any traces of republicanism.
- he crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I.
Napoleon’s Wars of Expansion:
Q5- WHAT LED TO NAPOLEON’S DOWNFALL?
CONCLUSION:
- late-eighteenth-century democratic upheaval.
- emergence of popular movement.
- the popular movement challenged the early and moderate revolutionary leadership, pressing for more
radical and democratic measures.
- popular movement in France was defeated, authority was reestablished by a quasi-military figure.
- the revolutionary ideas: liberty, equality, and fraternity
- The larger impact of the Revolution and the Napoleonic era: liberty, equality, nation.
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CHAPTER 19: THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND NINETEENTH-CENTURY SOCIETY:
Focus Questions:
1. Why did the Industrial Revolution first take hold in Britain?
2. What specific changes did the Industrial Revolution bring?
3. How was the Industrial Revolution different on the Continent?
4. Who were the new middle classes?
- Industrial revolution one that seemed to parallel the ongoing revolution in politics.
- a. new sources of energy and power, b. faster transformation, c. mechanization, d. higher productivity,
d. and new ways of organizing human labor
- It triggered social changes with revolutionary consequences for the West and its relationships with the
world.
- Its sweeping effects redistributed wealth, influence, and power. It created new social classes and
produced new social tensions.
- deep seated cultural shifts.
- 17th and 18th centuries had seen significant “proto-industrilaziation”: the spread of manufacturing in
rural areas in specific regions.
- changes in agriculture and property holding.
- population growth
- social and cultural developments such as more secure property rights, new forms of social mobility.
- began in northern England and western Scotland, and moved slowly and unevenly across continental
Europe.
Q1. WHY DID THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION TAKE HOLD IN BRITAIN?
1. Industrialization’s roots lay in agriculture.
Agriculture commercialized.
New techniques, new crops
Changes in patterns of property holding, “enclosure” of fields and pastures.
“the concentration of property in fewer hands drove small farmers off the land, sending them to look for
work in other sectors of the economy.
2. A key precondition for industrialization: growing supply of available capital, banking and credit
institutions.
3. Social and cultural conditions also encouraged investment in enterprises. In Britain far more than on
the Continent.
4. Growing domestic and international markets made eighteenth-century Britain prosperous.
5. Foreign markets promised even greater returns than domestic ones. Britain wrested overseas
territories from its enemies; penetrating hitherto unexploited territories: India and South America.
A merchant marine, and a navy.
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INNOVATION IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES:
- dramatic technological leaps.
- Tariffs prohibiting imports of East Indian cottons.
- imported raw materials from India and the American South
- patterns from Indian spinners.
- flying shuttle, the spinning jenny, the spinning mule, the cotton gin
- From 1780 on, British cotton textiles flooded the world market.
- Revolution in clothing, revolution in textiles, brilliant transformation in dress
- Women and children counted for two thirds of the labor force in textiles.
COAL AND IRON:
- Higher quality pig iron: machines, engines, railway track, agricultural implements, and hardware.
- infrastructure of industrialization.
- Britain export coal and iron to expanding markets.
THE COMING OF RAILWAYS:
The first modern railway built in England in 1825
- steam engines, textile machines, new ways of making iron, and railways.
Q2. HOW WAS THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION DIFFERENT ON THE CONTINENT?
- Followed a different path.
- France, Belgium, Germany.
1. Britain’s transportation system was highly developed, those of France and Germany were not.
2. Much of Central Europe was divided into small principalities, each with its own set of tolls and tariffs.
3. The Continent had fewer raw materials, coal in particular, than Britain.
4. high-energy consuming, coal-run steam engines were less economical on the Continent.
5. Capital was less readily available.
6. Early British industrialization was underwritten by private wealth
7. different patterns of landholding formed obstacles to the commercialization of agriculture
8. in the east, serfdom was a powerful disincentive to labor-saving innovation. Small peasants stayed put
on the land.
9. The wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon did hasten legal changes and the consolidation of
state power, but they disrupted economics.
10. Governments played a considerably more direct role in industrialization. After 1849 Prussian state
took on the task itself.
11. In sum, what Britain had produced almost by chance, the Europeans began to reproduce by design.
INDUSTRIALIZATION AFTER 1850:
- Until 1850 Britain remained the preeminent industrial power.
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- Between 1850 and 1870: France, German, Belgium, and US emerged as challengers to the power and
place of British manufacturers.
First phase of industrialization: cheaper and better clothes, cheaper and better metals, and faster travel.
The second half of the century:
- Revolution in communications: transatlantic cable, 1865, telephone 1876.
- New chemical process
- New sources of energy, oil and electricity.
- internal combustion engine.
- agricultural production in the East.
- By 1870 core industrial nations of Europe: Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and
Switzerland. Margins: Austria. Periphery: Russia, Spain, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Romania, Serbia
INDUSTRY AND EMPIRE:
- Europe guarded its international advantages through financial leverage: control of national debt of
China, Ottoman Empire, Egypt, Brazil, Argentina and other non-European powers.
- Loans,
- Free trade agreements
- World economy divided the producers of manufactured goods, and suppliers of necessary raw
materials and buyers of finished goods.
Q3. WHAT WERE THE CONSEQUENCES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION?
- Population growth:
1800: 205 million
1850: 275 million
1900: 414 million
1914: 480 million.
How do historians explain this population growth?
- rising fertility/falling mortality
LIFE ON THE LAND: THE PEASANTRY:
- famine
- Thomas Malthus on Population and Poverty.
- Irish famine
- Rural rebellions were common in the early 19th century
- mythical leader Captain Swing.
THE URBAN LANDSCAPE:
- the growth of cities.
- population of Europe doubled, population of cities tripled.
- new social problems.
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SEX IN THE CITY:
- Prostitution flourished in 19th century cities.
Vienna: 15,000; Paris: 50,000; London: 80,000
- criminality, water supply, sewers, prostitution, tuberculosis and cholera, alcoholism
- new cities and their poor inhabitants seemed to pose dangers, not only social but political.
- Balzac vs Dickens and Victor Hugo.
Q4. WHO WERE THE NEW MIDDLE CLASSES?
- Older hierarchies expressed as rank, status, and privilege, he believed, had given way to gradations
based on wealth, or social class.
- upward mobility, education.
- PRIVATE LIFE AND MIDDLE-CLASS IDENTITY.
- GENDER AND THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY.
- Wives and mothers were supposed to occupy a separate sphere of life, in which they lived in
subordination to their spouses. 19th century conception of separate spheres.
- paternal authority.
- Napoleonic Code: classified women, children and the mentally ill together as legally incompetent.
- gender relations: legal unequality.
- Victorian Britain: middle class women responsible for the moral education of her children, a housewife.
GENDER AND SEXUALITY:
- sexuality synonymous with anxiety
- men and women had different social roles, and those differences were rooted in their bodies.
- women’s alleged moral superiority, absence of sexual feeling, male sexual desire.
- governments legalized and regulated prostitution.
MIDDLE-CLASS LIFE IN PUBLIC:
WORKING-CLASS LIFE:
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CHAPTER 20: FROM RESTORATION TO REVOLUTION, 1815-1848:
- 1815: the age of revolution ended.
- Klemens von Metternich: Austrian foreign minister, the most influential conservative diplomat of the
early 19th century, called revolution a “sickness”, “plague”, “cancer”.
- Wave of revolution sweep across Europe in the 1820s, 1830s, and again in 1848
- Conservative efforts to restore the old order only succeeded in part. Why?
BACK TO THE FUTURE: RESTORING ORDER, 1815-1830:
Q1: WHAT PRINCIPLES GUIDED THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA?
- 1814, the victorious European powers met at the Congress of Vianna.
Tsar Alexander I, and the Austrian diplomat Klemens von Metternich, in dominant roles.
- Russia emerged as the most powerful Continental state.
- Metternich: concern, checking Russian expansionism and preventing political and social change.
- 1815-1914: the peace Metternich crafted helped prevent a major European war until 1914.
- guiding principle: the balance of power: no country should be powerful enough to destabilize
international relations.
- Confederation of the Rhine, the German Confederation: Napoleon reorganized German states.
- a “Concert of Europe” to secure the peace and create permanent stability.
- Quadruple Alliance: Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia
- Quintuple Alliance: plus France.
REVOLT AGAINST RESTORATION:
- restoration met opposition.
- the Italian Carbonari.
- Russia, the Decembrists, 1825
- Greek War of Independence, 1821-1827, Greek independence dependent on Great power politics.
Why was this conflict significant? The answer lies in conception of European identity. Christians in
Europe cast the rebellion as a part of an ongoing struggle between Christianity and Islam.
Increasingly Europeans spoke of Greece as the birthplace of the West. We are all Greeks.
- Serbia: The struggle between the European powers and the Ottomans similarly helped to create the
independent nation of Serbia in 1828.
- Ottoman Empire: Local movements began to demand autonomy and to ask the Europeans to sponsor
their struggles.
TAKING SIDES: NEW IDEOLOGIES IN POLITICS:
Q2: WHAT WERE THE NEW POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY?
- CONSERVATISM, LIBERALISM, SOCIALISM, NATIONALISM:
A.CONSERVATISM:
- monarchy, nobility, change should be slow
- Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France.
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- revival of religion in the early 19th century, a popular reaction against revolution and an emphasis on
order, discipline, and tradition.
B.LIBERALISM
- 1. Equality before the law, 2.government needed to be based on political rights and the consent of the
governed, 3.belief in economic individualism.
- John Locke.
- Freedom from arbitrary authority, imprisonment, or censorship; freedom of the press, the right to
assemble and deliberate
- constitutional monarchy
- liberalism by no means required democracy.
- Economic liberalism: Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (1776), attacked mercantilism: the government
practice of regulating manufacturing and trade in order to raise revenues.
- David Ricardo (1772-1823): economic activity should be unregulated. Labor should be contracted freely,
unhampered by guilds.
- The functions of state should be kept to a minimum.
- Strict opposition to government intervention makes nineteenth-century liberalism significantly
different from liberalism as we know it today.
C.RADICALISM, REPUBLICANISM, AND EARLY SOCIALISM:
- liberals: constitutional monarchy
- republicans: government by the people
- socialist: equality
- socialists: the social question, urgent political matter
- redistributing economic and social power.
- cooperation: new ways of organizing everyday life to collective ownership of means of production.
- utopian socialist: Robert Owen: a general reorganization of society on the basis of cooperation and
mutual respect. Charles Fourier: abolition of wage system.
- experimental communities. Joseph Proudhon, producers’ cooperatives. What is Property? Property is
theft.
KARL MARX’S SOCIALISM (1818-1883):
Marx’s theory of history.
German philosophy
British classical economy
French Utopian socialism
- abolish private property
- cyclical instability of overproduction
D: NATIONALISM, CITIZENSHIP AND COMMUNITY:
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REFORM AND REVOLUTION:
Q.HOW DID THE EVENTS OF 1830 BRING THE RESTORATION TO AN END?
- The Congress of Vienna had returned a Bourbon monarch to the throne: Louis XVIII.
THE 1830 REVOLUTION IN FRANCE:
- 1824, Louis was succeeded by his brother Charles X. Who was determined to reverse the legacies of the
revolutionary and Napoleonic eras.
Compensate members of the nobility whose land had been confiscated.
Restored the Catholic Church to its traditional place in French classrooms.
The King tried to overthrow the parliamentary regime in July 1830.
July Ordinances of 1830: a. dissolved the newly elected chamber, b. imposed censorship on the press, c.
further restricted suffrage, as to include only the nobility, d. called for new elections.
In return Charles got revolution: workers, artisans, students, and writers.
- The new regime called July Monarchy: King Louis Philippe (1830-1848): a constitutional monarch
accountable to the people
- The revolution of 1830 brought the common people back to politics.
- The revolution of 1830: It suggested that history was moving in a new direction and that the political
landscape had changed opening up new possibilities.
REFOM IN GREAT BRITAIN:
- Why was there no revolution in England?
- one of the most liberal nations in Europe.
British Radicalism and the CHARTIST MOVEMENT:
- 1832 “People’s Charter”, reform movement.
- economic conditions deteriorated in the 1840s, Chartism spread. Worker self-help organizations.
- Chartism: comprised many smaller movements, its goal was political democracy as a means to social
justice.
THE HUNGRY FORTIES:
- The economic and political conditions that sowed unrest in England produced revolution on the
Continent.
- Poor harvest in the early 1840s: 1845-1846
- potato blight, starvation in Ireland, hunger in Germany.
- 1846-1847, food prices doubled. Bread riots broke out across Europe.
- cyclical industrial slowdown across Europe. Threw thousands of workers into unemployment,
starving peasants and unemployed workers.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848:
- July monarchy and the King differ little from its predecessor.
- gathered around him banking and industrial elite.
- 1848 revolution broke out, Louis Philippe abdicated the throne.
- The provisional government of the new republic: liberals, republicans and socialist. New constitution
with elections based on universal suffrage.
- tensions between middle-class republicans and socialist
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- the right to work: the provisional government supported National Workshops, a program of public work
in and around Paris.
- unemployment 65%
- Popular politics flourished. The provisional government lifted restrictions on freedom of speech and
political activity. 170 ne journals, 200 clubs, women’s clubs. The revival of popular politics.
- Late spring 1848: the government closed the workshops, On June 21, simply ended the program,
repudiating any responsibility for the social question.
- Bloodiest conflict of the period: Laborers, journeymen, the unemployed, traditional manual laborers,
socialists, and some republican leaders
- Four days: June 23-26
- Repression: 3 thousand killed, 12 thousand arrested. June Days:
- government moved quickly to bring order to the country.
- Assembly members hoped a strong leader.
- Louis Napoleon Bonapart, nephew of the former emperor
“All facts and personages of great importance in world history occur twice…the first time as tragedy, the
second as farce.”
- 1851: he invited the people to grant him the power to draw up a new constitution. A plebiscite
authorized his actions.
- Established the SECOND EMPIRE and assumed the title of Napoleon III (1852-1870).
- In the aftermath of 1848, the interests and politics of middle-and working-class people were more
sharply differentiated and more directly at odds. Socialism would come into its own as an independent
political force.
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