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Chapter 1
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Chapter Outline
The First Humans
Hunter-Gatherers of the Paleolithic Age
The Neolithic Revolution, c. 10,000-4,000 B.C.E.
A Revolution in Agriculture
Consequences of the Neolithic Revolution
Emergence of Civilization
Civilization in Mesopotamia
City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia
Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia
Code of Hammurabi
Culture of Mesopotamia
Importance of Religion
Cultivation of New Arts and Sciences
Egyptian Civilization: "The Gift of the Nile"
The Importance of Geography
Old and Middle Kingdoms
Old Kingdom
Middle Kingdom
Society and Economy in Ancient Egypt
Culture of Egypt
Pyramids
Art and Writing
Chaos and a New Order: The New Kingdom
Daily Life in Ancient Egypt: Family and Marriage
New Centers of Civilization
Impact of the Indo-Europeans
Phoenicians
Hebrews: The "Children of Israel"
United Kingdom
Divided Kingdom
Spiritual Dimensions of Israel
The Rise of New Empires
Assyrian Empire
Assyrian Society and Culture
Persian Empire
Governing the Empire
Persian Religion
Conclusion
Chapter Summary
With the development of agriculture, civilizations began to arise, mainly along mighty rivers. Two of the
earliest civilizations developed in Mesopotamia along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and in Egypt along
the mighty Nile. Both civilizations built great cities, developed writing, and constructed massive
architecture to display their wealth and power. Each civilization created political, religious and social
structures to organize society and deal with nature and to try and understand the cosmos. We know much
about them by the written records they left behind.
As these civilizations weakened, new ones soon appeared. Throughout Mesopotamia several smaller
empires emerged briefly and left behind important ideas and institutions. Phoenician travelers spread
Mesopotamian trade and knowledge throughout the Mediterranean while developing a written alphabet,
and the Hebrews created one of the world’s great religions, which would later heavily influence both
Christianity and Islam.
These smaller empires would be overwhelmed by more powerful peoples. The Assyrians developed a
potent military structure that allowed them to be the first peoples to unite the entire Middle East under their
rule. The Assyrians, however, soon succumbed to an even larger and more powerful empire of the
Persians. The Persians with their tolerance for other peoples and religions brought peace and prosperity to
the region.
Terms and Persons to Know
Hominids
Homo habilis
Homo sapiens sapiens
Paleolithic peoples
Mesolithic period
Neolithic revolution
Çatal Hüyük
Neolithic Age living and labor patterns
writing
List: characteristics of civilization
Mesopotamia
Sumerians
ziggurat
Akkadians
Sargon
Amorites (Old Babylonians)
Hammurabi
Code of Hammurabi
polytheism
divination
cuneiform writing
Epic of Gilgamesh
Nile
dynasties
Old Kingdom
Intermediate periods
Menes
pharaoh
ma'at
bureaucracy
vizier
nomarch
Middle Kingdom
social hierarchy of Egypt
sun cult
Osiris cult
Book of the Dead
pyramids
ka
art: function and canon
hieroglyphs
papyrus
Hyksos
New Kingdom
Hatshepsut
Amenhotep IV or Akhenaten
Ramses II
wisdom literature
marriage
Neolithic Europe
Megalith
Stonehenge
Indo-Europeans
Hittites
Phoenicians
Hebrews
Judaism
Hebrew Bible
Kings of Israel
Temple
Israel and Judah
monotheism
Yahweh
covenant
law
prophets
Assyrian Empire
Ashurbanipal
Assyrian military monarchy
Chaldeans
Persians
Cyrus the Great
Darius
satrapies
Great Kings
Zoroastrianism
Ahuramazda
ethical dualism
Glossary Terms
Neolithic (Agricultural) Revolution
Agricultural revolution
Divination
Dualism
Hieroglyphics
Mesolithic Age
Monotheism
Paleolithic Age
Satrap/satrapy
Ziggurat
Mapwork
Map 1.1. Spread of Homo sapiens sapiens
Where did our species originate?
What patterns of living led us to travel far from our original sites of habitation?
Map 1.2. Development of Agriculture
Why do the first civilizations originate in river valleys?
Which crops are produced by early agricultural societies? How does this differ from the diet of
earlier Paleolithic peoples?
What developments in human society does agriculture initiate?
Map Central Asian Civilization
Most early ancient civilizations began around what geographic location? Do these Central Asian
civilizations begin the same type geographic location?
Map Caral, Peru
Along what river did the early civilization in Peru develop?
Map 1.3. Ancient Mesopotamia
Which modern country exists today where once stood Çatal Hüyük? Jericho?
Which modern countries occupy the region once known as Mesopotamia?
Identify the two rivers that gave Mesopotamia its name.
Identify the five independent city-states of Sumer.
Why has this region traditionally been called "the fertile crescent"? What geographical features
border this region to the north? south? east? southwest?
Map Hammurabi’s Empire
What modern country exists today where Hammurabi’s empire once stood?
Map 1.4. Ancient Egypt
How much of Egypt is arable land? Why?
How did the cataracts on the Nile affect Egyptian contact with lands to the south?
What danger does the Mediterranean Sea represent to the Egyptian empire, particularly from the
end of the New Kingdom to the time of Cleopatra?
Identify the capital cities of: the Old Kingdom, the New Kingdom, and Akhenaten.
Which city was of primary importance to the priests of Amon-Re?
Which of the Egyptian Kingdoms is makes Giza a site of superior monumental architecture?
Which is known for adorning Karnak and Luxor?
Map Stonehenge and Other Megalithic Sites in Europe
What purpose might megalithic sites have served?
Map 1.5. Palestine in the First Millenium B.C.E.
How far away from ancient Palestine were the regions of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt?
Which of the cities in this region was the site of Solomon's temple?
What affect did the Assyrian empire have on the kingdom of Israel? Why was Israel, more than
Judah, more vulnerable to the Assyrian military machine?
How did geography play a crucial role in causing the Phoenecians to become known as important
traders and transmitters of language?
Map 1.6. Assyrian and Persian Empires
In what ways did the Royal Road serve the purposes of the Great Kings of Persia?
Identify the capital cities of the following: the Assyrian empire, Nebuchadnezzar II, the
Achaemenid dynasty, the Persian empire. Considering the last city, however, where did Darius
prefer to live?
How did the Persian empire change between 557 and 539 B.C.E.?
Did the Persian empire ever gain control of India (to the east) or Greece (to the west)?
Datework
Chronology 1: The First Humans
Were Australopithecines hominids?
What were the differences between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens sapiens? Did these two
species overlap? Did they interact?
What was Homo erectus the first to do?
Chronology 2: Egyptians
How does the third-century B.C.E. Egyptian scholar Manetho still influence our organization of
Egyptian history today?
What distinguishes a "Kingdom" from an "Intermediate Period"?
Why is the period after 1085 B.C.E. termed "Post-Empire"?
Why does this chronology begin in 3100 B.C.E.? Why does it end in 30 B.C.E.?
Chronology 3: Israelites
What is the significance of the Exodus from Egypt in Hebrew history? Is this event remembered
as important in Egyptian history? Why or why not?
Where would Moses be placed in this chronology? The prophets?
Which event on this chronology is commemorated in Psalm 137?
Chronology 4: The Early Empires
What factors bring about the destruction of the Assyrian empire?
What differences characterize the kingships of the Assyrian Ashurbanipal and the Persian Cyrus
the Great?
What were the achievements of Cambyses and Darius?
Chapter Timeline: The emergence of city-states to the height of Persian power
On the bottom band of this timeline, note the following features, listed in chronological order:
Great Pyramid, Code of Hammurabi, Age of Zoroastrianism, and Prophets in Israel. Assign each
of these to its approximate date and to its proper culture.
Which of the Mesopotamian empires is powerful during the time of the Egyptian Old Kingdom?
Middle Kingdom? New Kingdom? What follows?
Primary Sourcework
Mesopotamian Primary Sources:
Code of Hammurabi
Why did Hammurabi's law code emphasize the principle of retribution?
What evidence do you see here for differential treatment according to social status?
What seems to be the role of females? What purpose did marriage serve? How do your
answers differ from the answers you might give if you were studying current U.S. laws?
The Great Flood (from the Epic of Gilgamesh)
The Old Testament story of Noah is narrated in the third person; in the Epic of
Gilgamesh, Utnapishtim appears to the hero Gilgamesh and tells his own story. Does the
account affect you differently as a result?
Why do the gods decide to destroy humankind, according to the Mesopotamian version?
How does this reflect Mesopotamian polytheism and Hebrew ethical monotheism?
Egyptian Primary Sources:
Hymn to the Nile and Hymn to the Pharaoh
Why is the life-giving river Nile personified in this hymn? What, according to this hymn,
would Egypt lack if the Nile were to disappear?
Why was the pharaoh said to "unite the Two Lands?"
What would Egypt lack if the pharaoh were to disappear? How does this relate to
Egyptian belief in the pharaoh's role in the maintenance of ma'at?
Chronologically speaking, to which Egyptian Kingdom would Seostris III have
belonged? Which two dynasties flourished then?
Akhenaten's Hymn to Aton
Why is Amenhotep IV more commonly known as Akhenaten?
After his death, some of Akhenaten's successors referred to him as "the criminal" or "the
rebel king." Why did this happen? How does this hymn document his "rebellion"?
What relation to the god Aten is the pharaoh claiming here?
Hebrew Primary Sources:
Exodus 19: 1-8
Where is the desert of Sinai on the possible exodus route? (See map 1.5.)
What relationship does the covenant establish between God and the Israelites?
What are the Ten Commandments?
Do you see any similarities between these commandments and the law code of
Hammurabi?
Hebrew Prophets: Micah, Isaiah, and Amos
According to Isaiah, why did God punish the Hebrew people? How does this differ from
the reason Amos gives?
What punishments did the Hebrews suffer?
Why is the Assyrian called "the rod of my anger?" What historical event is being alluded
to here?
Assyrian Primary Sources:
Assyrian Military Machine: King Sennacherib Describes a Battle with the Elamites and His
Siege of Jerusalem, and King Ashurbanipal Describes His Treatment of Conquered Babylon
Why did Assyrian kings promulgate writings of this kind?
Why do Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal prefer to say "I" rather than "We" (thus including
his generals and soldiers) in these documents?
What has happened to the Chaldeans who opposed Sennacherib? What about the
Israelites who opposed him? According to these documents, what military tactics have
been employed in these campaigns?
Artwork
Prehistoric Art:
Paleolithic Cave Painting
What purposes might paintings of this kind have served?
What subjects are commonly depicted in Paleolithic cave paintings? What human
concerns are expressed in this type of art?
Humans are very rarely depicted in Paleolithic art. Why do you think this is so?
Neolithic Statues from Ain Ghazal
If archaeologists found these statues in the ruins of a shrine, would you interpret them
differently than if they had been found in a house? Or in a burial?
How would knowing the precise location of these statues help you interpret their purpose
and meaning?
Mesopotamian Art:
"Royal Standard" of Ur
Where is Ur on the map of Mesopotamia? (See map 1.3)
How has the artist distinguished the Sumerian king from his nobles and his subjects?
What statement do the luxury goods and leisure activities represented here make about
the kings of the Sumerian city-states?
Could the king depicted here be Hammurabi? Why not?
Stele of Hammurabi (Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylonia)
Among all the gods worshipped in Babylonia, why is Shamash, the god of justice,
depicted on this stele?
Why did Hammurabi order such stelai to be placed throughout his empire?
Although some similarities in dress between Hammurabi and Shamash are evident, how
has the artist distinguished the god from the king? Although the two figures' heads
occupy the same level on the stele, are the two figures really the same height? How has
the artist achieved this deceptive effect and for what purpose?
What gesture is Shamash making? What gesture is Hammurabi making in return?
Which portion of the stele had greatest meaning for the majority of Babylonians, the
picture or the cuneiform inscription below? Why?
Early Writing
Why would a system of writing, such as cuneiform, become less and less pictorial over
time?
What writing instrument gave cuneiform writing its characteristic shape?
Who invented cuneiform? What advantages does such a writing system give to its
civilization?
Which of the primary source documents in this chapter would have first been written
down in cuneiform writing?
Egyptian Art:
Pair Statue of King Menkaure and His Queen
Chronologically speaking, to which of the Egyptian Kingdoms did Menkaure and his
queen belong?
What evidence is presented here for the status of Great Wife in the pharaoh's household?
Is the queen depicted as subordinate to her husband in any way?
How does this sculpture idealize the king and queen? Is this a portrait of the pharaoh, an
image of him as god and divine instrument, or a combination of the two?
Great Pyramids of Giza
Chronologically speaking, which dynasties ruled Egypt during the period when the
pyramids were built?
Where is Giza? With which Old Kingdom city was it associated? (See map 1.4.)
How were the pyramids designed to serve the pharaoh's ka?
Why could only the pharaoh (and his immediate family) cause a pyramid to be built?
Nubians in Egypt
How are the Nubians similar in appearance to the Egyptians?
What separated Egypt from Nubia geographically?
What goods and ideas might have flowed into Egypt from Nubia?
Neolithic European Art:
Stonehenge
What does Stonehenge indicate about Neolithic European culture?
Where have megaliths been found?
Assyrian Art:
The King of Israel Pays Tribute to the King of Assyria
How are the King of Israel and the King of Assyria distinguished from each other on this
obelisk? Why?
Consider this artwork again in light of the primary source readings "The Hebrew
Prophets: Isaiah and Amos" and "The Assyrian Military Machine." Does this scene
reinforce or refute what the documents say about the interaction of Israel and Assyria?
King Ashurbanipal's Lion Hunt
Why does some of the richest Assyrian art in the world come from archaeological sites at
the location of ancient Nineveh?
Is King Ashurbanipal in any danger here? Does he seem to mind? What statement is
being made about Assyrian kingship?
Archers of the Persian Guard
To whom would this famous infantry force have appeared "immortal," to the Persians or
to their enemies? Why? What made this appearance an effective military tactic?
This frieze originally adorned the palace of a Persian king. Why would it be effective
decoration for his residence?
We have seen that ancient Egyptian art was more idealizing than realistic. What
evidence do you see that Persian art had some of the same tendencies?
Tablework
Table 1.1 Some Semitic Languages
Which two Semitic languages are still spoken today? How do scholars know that the others ever
existed?
What similarities do you see between the names of the languages in this linguistic family and the
history of empires in Mesopotamia?
Table 1.2 Some Indo-European Languages
Who were the Indo-Europeans? How did they come to be called this?
Were the Semitic languages or the Indo-European languages ancestral to most European languages
spoken today? Were any Indo-European languages important in the Mesopotamian world?
Table 1.3 Phoenecian, Greek, and Roman Alphabets
How is the Phoenecian writing system simpler than Sumerian cuneiform or Egyptian hieroglyphs?
What similarities do you see between these three alphabets? How did the Phoenecian alphabet
come to be so influential?
What similarities do you see between these ancient alphabets and our own?
Given your answer to the preceding question, are Greek and Latin truly "dead" languages?
Quiz
Multiple Choice:
1.
*
2.
*
The earliest human creatures were called
a.
homo sapiens
b.
homo habilis
c.
Australopithecines
d.
homo erectus
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 3
b.
incorrect, p. 3
c.
correct, p. 3.
d.
incorrect, p. 3
Which of the following were technological innovations of the Paleolithic peoples?
a.
use of fire
b.
development of agriculture
c.
making of tools
d.
both a & c
Ans.
a.
correct but so is c, p. 5
b.
incorrect, p. 5
c.
correct but so is a, p. 4
d.
correct, p. 5
3.
Which of the following correctly matches the crop with its location of development in the
Neolithic Age?
*
a.
Mexico – corn
b.
northern China – rice
c.
Egypt – yams
d.
southeastern Asia – wheat
Ans.
a.
correct, p. 6
b.
incorrect, p. 6
c.
incorrect, p. 6
d.
incorrect, p. 6
4.
*
5.
*
Which
a.
b.
c.
d.
Ans.
of the following is (are) consequences of the Neolithic revolution?
People settled in towns.
Communities began to engage in trade.
A division of labor developed.
All of the above.
a.
correct but so are b & c, p. 6-7.
b.
correct but so are a & c, p. 6-7.
c.
correct but so are a & b, p. 6-7.
d.
correct, p. 6-7.
A massive Sumerian stepped tower was called a(n)
a.
hieroglyphic.
b.
ziggarut.
c.
cuneiform.
d.
Uruk.
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 19.
b.
correct, p. 9
c.
incorrect, p. 14.
d.
incorrect, p. 9.
6.
_______ was the leader of the Akkadians who conquered the Sumerian city-states around 2340
B.C.E.
a.
Hammurabi
b.
Menes
*
c.
Sargon
d.
Ashurbanipal
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 11.
b.
incorrect, p. 16
c.
correct, p. 11
d.
incorrect, p. 2
7.
*
8.
*
9.
*
10.
Hammurabi is most known for
a.
conquering the Persians.
b.
developing an alphabet.
c.
defeating the Amorites.
d.
developing a code of law.
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 11
b.
incorrect, p. 11
c.
incorrect, p. 11
d.
correct, p.12
Which of the following is NOT an important Mesopotamian god?
a.
Enki
b.
Amun
c.
Ninhursaga
d.
Enlil
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 13
b.
correct, p. 19
c.
incorrect, p. 13
d.
incorrect, p. 13
Which of the following protected Egypt from invading forces?
a.
deserts
b.
cataracts
c.
swamps
d.
both a & b
Ans.
a.
correct, but so is b, p. 16
b.
correct, but so is a, p. 16
c.
incorrect, p. 16
d.
correct, p. 16
The periods of weak political leadership, invasion and decline in ancient Egypt were called
a.
the Middle Period.
b.
ma’at.
c.
the Intermediate Period.
d.
dynasties.
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 16
b.
incorrect, p. 17
c.
correct, p. 16
d.
incorrect, p. 16
11.
*
12.
*
A nomarch was an Egyptian
a.
king.
b.
priest.
c.
governor.
d.
law.
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 17
b.
incorrect, p. 17
c.
correct, p. 17
d.
incorrect, p. 17
In Egypt, the ka was
a.
the pharoah’s advisor.
b.
the name for the sun god.
c.
one’s spiritual body.
d.
the priests who performed mummification.
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 18
b.
incorrect, p. 19
c.
correct, p. 19
d.
incorrect, p. 19
13.
*
The Middle Kingdom came to an end with invasion of
a.
the Hyksos.
b.
the Nubians.
c.
the Persians.
d.
the Assyrians.
Ans.
a.
correct, p. 20
b.
incorrect, p. 21
c.
incorrect, p 20
d.
incorrect, p. 21
14.
Which Indo-European language speakers were the first to use iron?
a.
Assyrians
b.
Hittites
c.
Egyptians
d.
Phoenicians
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 23
b.
correct, p. 23
c.
incorrect, p. 23
d.
incorrect, p. 24
*
15.
*
From whom did the Greeks learn an alphabet?
a.
Hebrews
b.
Persians
c.
Romans
d.
Phoenicians
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 24
b.
incorrect, p. 24
c.
incorrect, p. 24
d.
correct, p. 24
16.
*
17.
*
Who made Jerusalem into the capital of the united kingdom of the Israelites?
a.
Abraham
b.
Saul
c.
David
d.
Solomon
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 25
b.
incorrect, p 25
c.
correct, p. 25
d.
incorrect, p. 25
Who conquered Judah and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E.?
a.
Assyrians
b.
Chaldeans
c.
Persians
d.
Romans
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 26
b.
correct, p. 26
c.
incorrect, p. 26
d.
incorrect, p. 26
18.
*
________ was the capital of the Assyrian empire.
a.
Nineveh
b.
Babylon
c.
Jerusalem
d.
Ur
Ans.
a.
correct, p. 28
b.
incorrect, p. 28
c.
incorrect, p. 28
d.
incorrect, p. 28
19.
Who united Persia into a great empire and ruled with great tolerance?
a.
Darius
b.
Cambyses
c.
Cyrus
d.
Ashrubanipal
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 31
b.
incorrect, p. 31
c.
correct, p. 31
d.
incorrect, p. 28
*
20.
*
A satrap was a(n)
a.
Persian road.
b.
Assyrian governor.
c.
Persian governor.
d.
Assyrian priest.
Ans.
a.
incorrect, p. 32
b.
incorrect, p. 28
c.
correct, p. 32
d.
incorrect, p. 32
True/False
1.
Paleolithic peoples knew how to grow food.
a.
b.
true
false *
a.
b.
incorrect, Neolithic peoples grew food, p. 4.
correct, p. 4.
2.
Bronze was the first metal used to produce tools.
a.
b.
true
false *
a.
b.
incorrect, copper was the first metal used, p. 7.
correct, p. 7.
3.
Mesopotamian civilization developed along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
a.
b.
true*
false
a.
b.
correct, p. 9.
incorrect, Mesopotmian civilization did develop along the Tigris and Euphrates, p. 9.
4.
David built the Temple in Jerusalem.
a.
b.
true
false *
a.
b.
incorrect, Solomon built the Temple, p. 25
correct, p. 25.
5.
Cyrus showed great tolerance towards the peoples he conquered.
a.
b.
true *
false
a.
correct, p. 31.
b.
incorrect, , Cyrus was unlike most ancient conquerors who allowed conquered peoples to keep
their faith and culture, p. 31.
Essay/Short Answer
1.
Describe the characteristics of civilization.
Ans. pp. 7-8
 Urban focus with cities
 A distinct religious structure
 Political and military structures with organized government bureaucracy
 A social structure based on economic power
 Development of writing
 Significant artistic and intellectual activity
2.
How did geography impact Egypt and Mesopotamia differently?
Ans. pp. 9, 12-13, 15-16
 Tigris and Euphrates flooded irregularly and often with great destruction
 Mesopotamian agriculture required irrigation
 The harsh weather and geography convinced Mesopotamians that gods controlled the
universe and must be obeyed
 Life unpredictable in Mesopotamia so use of divination
 Egypt had the predictable Nile and was insulated
 Life was rhythmic and steady
 Food in great abundance
 Life was good in Egypt and stability
 Fundamental order and harmony
3.
How did the role of the pharaoh change from the Old to the Middle Kingdom?
Ans. p. 18
 Old Kingdom the pharaoh was a god-king and not accessible to the people, he was above
them
 In Middle Kingdom the pharaoh was the shepherd of his people who had act in the public
good
4.
What role did women play in Egyptian society?
Ans.
pp. 21-22
 Outside of the pharaohs there was usually monogamy
 Arranged marriages but often with love
 Wives rant he household and educated the children
 Women retained control of their own property and inheritances even in marriage
 Some were allowed to run businesses
 A rare few became pharaohs
 Primary concern was producing children and only sons carried the family name
5.
What were the key aspects of the Jewish faith?
Ans. pp. 26-28
 There was one god, Yahweh
 Yahweh was the god of all peoples
 He was a just god who showed mercy
 The Jews had a covenant with god – they promised to obey Yahweh and follow his law
and he promised to take care of his chosen people
 Ethical concerns were center of religious law with no class distinctions
 They believed that certain teachers or prophets were sent by God to serve as his voice
 Against social injustice
Internet Exploration
To see the caves of Lascaux and learn about prehistorical culture, visit
http://www.culture.fr/culture/arcnat/lascaux/en/
To learn more about ancient Egypt, visit
http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/menu.html
To see buildings of Mesopotomia and learn more about its cultures, visit
http://members.tripod.com/jaydambrosio/mesopotamia.html
To see updated information on the archeological excavations at Catal Huyuk, visit
http://catal.arch.cam.ac.uk/