Download Determinants of prognosis of COPD in the elderly: mucus

Copyright #ERS Journals Ltd 2003
European Respiratory Journal
ISSN 0904-1850
Eur Respir J 2003; 21: Suppl. 40, 10s–14s
DOI: 10.1183/09031936.03.00403403
Printed in UK – all rights reserved
Determinants of prognosis of COPD in the elderly: mucus
hypersecretion, infections, cardiovascular comorbidity
R. Pistelli*, P. Lange#,}, D.L. Millerz
Determinants of prognosis of COPD in the elderly: mucus hypersecretion, infections,
cardiovascular comorbidity. R. Pistelli, P. Lange, D.L. Miller. #ERS Journals Ltd 2003.
ABSTRACT: In this paper, the authors update the present knowledge about three risk
factors for the prognosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which may
be particularly relevant in elderly people: mucus hypersecretion, respiratory infections,
and cardiovascular comorbidity. Chronic mucus hypersecretion (CMH) is a common
respiratory symptom in old age, the relevance of which is analysed on the basis of data
collected during the first three rounds of the Copenhagen City Heart Study. In subjects
aged o65 yrs, CMH was a strong predictor of the incidence of respiratory infections
in a 10-yr follow-up period and it was also a strong predictor of death from COPD
(relative risk=2.5). However, CMH was associated with consistently lower forced
expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) values, but not with an accelerated decline of
FEV1 in this sample of an elderly population.
Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are extremely common at all ages, mostly mild
self-limiting illnesses at a young age, but severe often fatal illnesses in elderly people
already affected by a chronic disease such as COPD. This paper summarises the present knowledge about aetiology, pathology, prognostic relevance, and prevention of
ARI. Furthermore, the areas in which further research is needed are listed. Clinical
cohort studies clearly support the relevance of cardiovascular comorbidity for the shortand long-term prognosis of elderly subjects affected by severe COPD.
In this paper, the recently demonstrated association between particulate air pollution and cardiovascular events is reported to suggest the presence of an extremely
susceptible cluster of elderly subjects in the population identified by the copresence of
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cardiovascular comorbidity.
Eur Respir J 2003; 21: Suppl. 40, 10s–14s.
Chronic mucus hypersecretion
Chronic mucus hypersecretion (CMH), defined as coughing
and bringing up sputum forw3 months for at least two consecutive
years, is a common respiratory symptom in elderly persons [1].
In the present analyses, the authors focused on the prevalence, possible risk factors for, and the prognostic importance of CMH in a random sample of an elderly population.
Data were used from the first, second and third examination
rounds of the Copenhagen City Heart Study, comprising
3,677 males and females aged w65 yrs, living in the inner city
of Copenhagen. The original population sample was drawn
in January 1976 from the Copenhagen Population Register
among a population ofy90,000 inhabitants aged o20 yrs [2].
The sample was age stratified, with the main emphasis placed
on the age groups 35–70 yrs. The cohort was investigated for
the first time in 1976–1978, for the second time in 1981–1983,
and for the third time in 1991–1994. In general, the response
rates were y65% in the participants w65 yrs, being highest
among subjects aged 65–70 yrs (75%) and lowest among those
aged o80 yrs (y32%).
Prevalence of and risk factors for chronic mucus
hypersecretion
In previous investigations of this cohort, the prevalence of
CMH was 8.2% in females and 12.5% in males [3].
*Dept of Respiratory Physiology, Catholic
University, Rome, Italy, #Copenhagen City
Heart Study, Bispebjerg University Hospital,
Copenhagen, Denmark, }Dept of Respiratory
Medicine, Hvidovre University Hospital,
Hvidovre, Denmark, zDept of Public Health
Sciences, King9s College, University of London,
London, UK.
Correspondence: R. Pistelli
Dept of Respiratory Physiology
Catholic University
Via Moscati, 31
00168 Rome
Italy
Fax: 39 063054641
E-mail: [email protected]
Keywords: Cardiovascular comorbidity
elderly
mucus hypersecretion
respiratory infections
Received and accepted: April 12 2002
In subjects aged w65 yrs, the prevalence was somewhat
higher, 13% in females and 18.6% in males. In both sexes,
the prevalence was significantly related to smoking (pv0.001).
For example, in never-smoking males the prevalence was
6.7%, whereas in heavy-smoking males it was 23.4%. Passive smoking, defined as being a nonsmoker and living with a
smoking spouse, was associated with a significantly higher
prevalence of CMH in females (8.8% versus 12.6%; pv0.05),
but not in males (14.6% versus 11.4%).
The participants were subdivided into eight groups according to social status, mainly based on their education and type
of work. In elderly females, there was no relationship between
social status and prevalence of CMH, whereas elderly males
with low social status had a slightly higher prevalence of
CMH (pv0.05). The relatively low impact of social status
on CMH in this elderly population is in contrast with findings relating to younger subjects in the Copenhagen City
Heart Study [3]. This discrepancy probably reflects cohort
differences in smoking habits; in the younger age groups,
smoking is more prevalent in low social classes, whereas no
social gradient in smoking habits is observed in the elderly
sample. In addition, there are probably cohort differences
with regard to occupation conditions. Previous exposure to
dusts and fumes was significantly (pv0.001) related to higher
CMH prevalence: 11.6% in females without exposure versus
28.4% in females with exposure, and in males 15% versus
27.7%.
There was also a significant association between self-reported
MUCUS, INFECTIONS AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES
Table 1. – Results from multiple logistic regression predicting
chronic mucus hypersecretion
Variable
OR (95% CI)
Male sex
Smoking
Never
Previous smoking
Present smoking
Multiple chest infections
v6 in 10 yrs
w6 in 10 yrs
Dust and fumes at work
Chest infections in childhood
w3 drinks?day-1
1.1 (0.9–1.3)
1
1.7 (1.2–2.2)
2.8 (2.1–3.8)
6.2
2.2
2.1
1.8
1
(4.1–9.2)
(1.7–2.7)
(1.6–2.9)
(1.3–2.3)
chest infections during childhood and CMH in old age: 12.1%
versus 25% in females and 17.1% versus 40.6% in males. In
addition, CMH was significantly more common in individuals
with repeated chest infections during the 10 yrs before the
CMH assessment. CMH was also more prevalent in individuals
with a high consumption of alcohol.
A multiple logistic regression was performed, with CMH as
the dependent variable and sex, active and passive smoking,
childhood and recent respiratory infections, industrial dusts
and fumes exposure, alcohol consumption and social status as
independent variables. The regression showed that smoking,
chest infections in childhood, recent chest infections and
alcohol consumption of more than three drinks a day are
significant predictors of CMH (table 1).
Prognostic importance of chronic mucus hypersecretion
The prognostic importance of CMH was investigated prospectively in different ways. Firstly, the incidence of respiratory infections during a 10-yr follow-up was studied. The
distribution of subjects according to presence of CMH and
number of self-reported chest infections is shown in figure 1.
This confirms that in this elderly population the presence of
CMH is strongly related to respiratory infections.
In individuals with repeated measurements of forced
expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) during the 15-yr
observation period, the relation between lung function and
CMH was investigated. Although the FEV1 was consistently
11s
lower in both sexes in subjects with CMH, the decline of
FEV1 appeared similar in those with and without CMH.
These results differ slightly from the authors9 previous observation in younger individuals in this cohort, where CMH was
significantly related to accelerated FEV1 decline [4].
The importance of CMH as a predictor of survival and
mortality from all causes and respiratory diseases was described using survival analysis. CMH was significantly associated with poor survival. When looking at specific causes of
death using Cox regression models adjusting for age, sex and
smoking, it was found that CMH was a significant predictor
of death from obstructive lung disease (relative risk (RR)=2.5)
and lung cancer (RR=2.0).
It is concluded that in the elderly population, CMH
is a very common condition with important prognostic
implications.
Respiratory infections in the elderly
Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are extremely common
at all ages and in all countries. Most are mild, self-limiting
illnesses and rarely fatal except in vulnerable groups such as
the elderly and where social conditions are poor. Nevertheless, according to the Global Burden of Disease Study [5], in
1990 acute lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) ranked
third among the leading causes of death in the world, most
of them (75%) due to illnesses diagnosed as pneumonia. In
contrast to mortality, age-specific incidence rates for ARI
are similar in most communities regardless of differences in
geography, and environmental and social conditions. However, the incidence of severe infections, like mortality rates,
varies considerably by age and diagnosis. Thus, in persons
aged w65 yrs, pneumonia and bronchitis are relatively more
common than in younger adults [6].
There are several factors that may compromise the validity
of statistics on mortality and morbidity. For example, there
are no universally agreed clinical criteria for different ARI
diagnoses. Consequently, there is wide variation in the use
of the same diagnostic label by different practitioners [7].
Variable access to and use of microbiological laboratories,
inadequate reporting systems, under-counting of ARI-related
deaths arising from the application of coding rules that
accord priority to the "underlying condition", and often
uncertain population denominators, are further complicating factors. On balance, most published statistics probably
greatly underestimate the true incidence of ARI illnesses and
deaths.
90
80
Acute lower respiratory illnesses
Subjects %
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
No mucus
Chronic mucus
Fig. 1. – Chronic mucus hypersecretion as a predictor of respiratory
infections. h: no episodes; u: 1–5 episodes; q: o6 episodes.
Bronchitis and bacterial pneumonia occur in the elderly
commonly as acute complications of chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) or secondary to viral infections.
They also occur as terminal events, often due to nosocomial
infection, for example with staphylococci, in patients who
are seriously ill with other diseases.
Primary community-acquired pneumonia is the most common reason for acute admission to hospital in the UK [8].
Over 90% of these patients are aged o65 yrs, with a case
fatality rate of 16–40% [9]. This age group is 2–5 times more
likely to develop pneumococcal infection than the general
population [10], and fatality rates increase sharply with age.
The most commonly identified pathogen is Streptococcus
pneumoniae (f40%) [11], followed by Haemophilus influenzae
and Staphylococcus aureus. Chlamydia pneumoniae has been
reported in f26% of cases in patients w65 yrs [12]. "Atypical
12s
R. PISTELLI ET AL.
agents" collectively account for 10–20% of all cases of pneumonia [13]. They are becoming more prominent in older
people, though some of the increase may be attributable to
improved methods of detection [14].
Chronic lower respiratory illness
The role of infection in initiating damage to the lower airways and deterioration of respiratory function is uncertain.
The healthy lower respiratory tract is normally sterile. There
is evidence in animals that virus infections compromise the
natural mechanisms for clearance of bacteria from the bronchi and enhance their invasiveness [15]. The possible role of
primary bacterial infection is less clear.
One study found that carrier rates of S. pneumoniae and
H. influenzae in the nasopharynx were similar for males with
and without chronic sputum production [16]. This suggests
that the presence of these organisms in the nasopharynx is
not critical in initiating bronchial hypersecretion, although
it may lead to secondary infection when other conditions
favour invasion. The interpretation of cultures of expectorated sputum is confounded by possible contamination with
organisms from the upper respiratory tract. However, one or
both organisms was isolated much more frequently from
sputum (54%), particularly from purulent sputum (75%), than
from the upper respiratory tract (25%) [16]. This suggests
that in patients with mucus hypersecretion the bronchial tree
is often colonised by bacteria, which then multiply during
episodes of acute bronchitis.
The exact sequence of events leading to COPD remains
uncertain, although FLETCHER et al. [17] were quite clear
on the basis of their cohort studies that symptomatic bronchial infection was not a primary cause of COPD. While chronic subclinical infection might cause irreversible damage,
FLETCHER et al. [17] thought this unlikely. On balance, it
seems more likely that other agents, such as viruses, cigarette
smoke and atmospheric pollutants, inflict the primary
damage, which facilitates bacterial invasion leading to acute
illnesses.
Risk factors for respiratory infections
Acute respiratory infections in early childhood. Exposure to
several social and environmental factors, including indoor and
outdoor air pollution, correlate with the incidence and severity
of ARI. In children, local pollution exposure is important [18],
while in adults smoking is the dominant risk factor. However,
a residual effect of childhood respiratory illness and social
conditions persists [19, 20]. Recently, a strong correlation has
been demonstrated between chronic bronchitis death rates in
older adults and infant mortality rates from bronchitis and
pneumonia some 50 yrs earlier [21]. Thus, the steep downward
trend in bronchitis mortality in England and Wales during
recent decades [22] may be linked to an earlier decline in LRTI
in childhood [23], associated with improved environmental
conditions. If the above relationships apply in newly emerging
economies with increasing industrial pollution, there will be a
substantial legacy of COPD to be reaped in later life [24].
Air pollution. Ambient air pollution and tobacco smoke can
have short- as well as long-term adverse effects that lead
to increased incidence and severity of respiratory infection.
Experimental evidence in animals suggests that components of
air pollution, such as ozone and nitrous oxide, impair clearance
of bacteria from mouse lungs and increase fatality rates
following acute infection. Also, exposure of macrophages to
tobacco smoke reduces their ability to kill bacteria. However,
these effects are not easy to demonstrate epidemiologically
in human populations because of confounding with other
environmental factors. The effects are most obvious during
short episodes of intense exposure. In December 1991, for
example, London experienced an historic air pollution episode lasting 4 days. During the episode, deaths attributed
to respiratory infections were 23% higher than expected,
consultations with general practitioners rose by 10% for upper
respiratory and 4% for lower respiratory conditions, and
hospital admissions of people w65 yrs rose by 19% [25].
Smoking. The adverse effects of tobacco smoke on lung health
are too well known to require emphasis [26]. The increased
susceptibility to acute and chronic infection among smokers
was starkly reflected in cohort studies of mortality from
COPD, pneumonia and tuberculosis [27].
Prevention of acute respiratory infections
The prevention of ARI and of its damaging consequences
depends on reduction of exposure to aetiological agents, the
control of factors that increase susceptibility to ARI, and on
increasing immunity by vaccination.
Reduced exposure to potentially harmful microbes depends
on the control of factors that favour cross-infection, such as
poor housing, overcrowding and other adverse social conditions. Much more important would be reduced exposure to
tobacco smoke and indoor air pollution from the combustion
of fossil fuels in conditions with poor ventilation.
Presently, the available vaccines for the elderly include
influenza and pneumococcal vaccines. Killed influenza virus
vaccines are effective in preventing illness and reducing the
frequency of complications in the elderly [28, 29]. Vaccination has also been shown to reduce hospital admissions and
mortality [30] and save money [31]. Unfortunately, owing to
antigenic shift and drift the composition of the vaccine has to
be revised annually to include the most recent A and B
variants, and annual re-vaccination with the current vaccine is
essential to sustain protection. Many countries recommend
routine immunisation of all persons aged w65 yrs, in addition
to high-risk groups such as those with chronic heart or lung
disease.
Pneumococcal vaccine contains purified capsular polysaccharide from each of 23 capsular types of pneumococcus,
which account fory90% of the pneumococcal isolates causing
serious infection [32]. A single dose is usually recommended
for patients at high risk from developing pneumococcal disease [33], including those with chronic heart and lung disease,
while some authorities advocate immunisation of all persons
aged w65 yrs [34]. Overall efficacy in preventing pneumococcal pneumonia is probablyy60–70%. Booster doses of vaccine
can provoke serious reactions and are not normally advised
within 5–10 yrs.
In conclusion, knowledge of the causes, consequences and
prevention of ARI in the elderly has advanced little in the
last two or three decades. Further research is needed into:
1) Improved data on mortality and morbidity attributed to
ARI in different population groups; 2) simplified techniques
for identifying aetiological agents; 3) mechanisms whereby
the lower respiratory tract resists infection; 4) how lung
defences may be damaged by exposure to tobacco smoke,
atmospheric pollutants and infection; 5) the role of infection and other risk factors in childhood in the origins and
progression of COPD in later life; and 6) evaluation of the
efficacy and cost-effectiveness of vaccines for the prevention
of respiratory illnesses and death in the elderly.
MUCUS, INFECTIONS AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES
Cardiovascular comorbidity
Cardiovascular comorbidity contributes significantly to the
prognosis of elderly subjects affected by COPD. Much epidemiological evidence of the association between air pollution and increased rates of cardiovascular morbidity and
mortality in elderly subjects has been produced in the last
decade. Moreover, that association seems to be a cause/effect
relationship according to some recently published papers. It
seems that cardiovascular diseases are not only the most
relevant comorbidity for patients affected by COPD, but the
cardiovascular system may be directly damaged by the same
environmental pollutants primarily affecting the respiratory
system.
The epidemiological evidence
In a cohort of patients affected by COPD and respiratory
failure, it was shown that the presence of ventricular or atrial
arrhythmias was the most relevant comorbid factor, increasing the in-hospital mortality rate of these patients [35]. Also,
the long-term mortality rate in the same cohort was increased
by the presence of electrocardiographic signs of right ventricular hypertrophy and of previous myocardial infarction or
ischaemia [36]. Moreover, some electrocardiographic patterns
of right ventricular hypertrophy predicted a very poor prognosis and a median survival time no longer than 2 yrs [37]. In
short, when bronchial obstruction in COPD patients reached
its final stages, the pulmonary function parameters were no
longer significant predictors of prognosis, and cardiovascular
health seemed to be the main determinant of quality of life
and survival.
The association of air pollution and mortality in the general
population and, particularly, in the frail elderly population
already affected by chronic pulmonary or cardiac diseases,
has been demonstrated in a number of episodes, the most
famous of which was the "London fog" in the winter of 1952.
However, the main current concern derives from the demonstration that air pollution is a determinant of excess mortality
at concentrations that are much lower than those recorded
during the "London fog" episode, with a continuous linear
association at concentrations considered safe by the regulatory authorities. Some recently published data [38], obtained
from a large dataset including 20 US cities, confirm an
association between fine particulate pollution and excess
mortality, which is specific for that pollutant and, more
relevant, for cardiovascular and respiratory cause-specific
mortality rates. Not only mortality, but also morbidity from
cardiovascular diseases is associated with air pollution. Some
recently published papers report an association between the
hospitalisation rate for cardiovascular diseases and air
pollution [39–42]. Thus, there is consistent epidemiological
evidence for an association between cardiovascular morbidity
and mortality and fine particulate pollution. However, until
recently, industry groups argued that the association found
by epidemiologists could be attributable to residual confounding on the basis of the lack of biological plausibility for
a causal relationship between pollutants and cardiovascular
diseases [43].
The "blood hypothesis" was advanced some years ago in
a Lancet editorial [44]. The authors proposed that some
biological mediators released from alveolar cells, stimulated
by inhaled ultrafine particles could enhance blood coagulability, producing vascular thrombosis and cardiovascular
damage. SEATON et al. [44] suggested that their hypothesis
could be easily challenged, both in observational and experimental studies. Unfortunately, up to now, only a few inconsistent observational findings have been produced [45, 46],
and the "blood hypothesis" is still an unproved, but fascinating hypothesis.
The "autonomic hypothesis" was suggested on the basis of
some experimental results in dogs [47] and the observation of
increased heart rate or ventricular arrhythmias associated
with increased levels of fine or ultrafine particulates in the
environment [48, 49]. More recently, the association between
the autonomic control of the heart and air pollution has
been investigated in observational studies that showed that
decreased heart rate variability was found to be associated
with increased levels of particulates [50, 51]. These results and
the well-known poor prognosis associated with decreased
heart rate variability in subjects affected by ischaemic heart
disease and other cardiovascular problems [52] strongly
suggest that the linkage between cardiovascular morbidity
and air pollution may be found in some disturbance of the
autonomic control of heart activity.
In conclusion, cardiovascular diseases are the most important determinant of prognosis of elderly subjects affected by
severe bronchial obstruction due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Particulate air pollution increases the mortality
and morbidity rates in elderly subjects, but the currently
available epidemiological data are not suitable to further
disentangle the sequence of events and the relative importance
of pulmonary and cardiovascular problems that result in
hospitalisation or death of those subjects. To resolve this
problem, it is advisable to perform prospective cohort studies
of subjects affected by pulmonary and cardiac diseases
already defined with a high degree of accuracy and resident
in areas with high-quality environmental monitoring facilities. These studies should aim to analyse the association of
episodes of exacerbation and hospitalisation or death with
air pollution levels in subjects with a well-defined clinical
situation both before and after the critical episodes. The exact
definition of "who" and "how many" individuals comprise
susceptible subjects is the main anticipated result of this
study, with obvious implications for setting new air quality
standards.
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