Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
1380 Advances in Environmental Biology, 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 ISSN 1995-0756 This is a refereed journal and all articles are professionally screened and reviewed ORIGINAL ARTICLE Linseed and Usages in Humanlife Mohammad Sharrif Moghaddasi Islamic Azad University/saveh Branch, Iran. Mohammad Sharrif Moghaddasi; Linseed and Usages in Humanlife Common Names: flaxseed, linseed Latin Names: Linum usitatissimum Introduction Flaxseed or linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) is derived from the flax plant, an annual herb with blue flowers believed to have originated in Egypt. Also othere researcher bilived that it maybe from Türkiye, Suriye, or Irak. Todays this plant cultivated as a cultivar plant in Europe, Asia, USA. It is a versatile plant that is grown both for industrial and culinary applications, as well as for aesthetic purposes. This is one of the few flowers in the world capable of truly producing the blue colors. The popularity of the flax plant has been increasing in the past years due to health concerns and awareness that is spreading across the world. Known for its high content of omega-3 fatty acids as well as fibre, flax seeds in its various forms have become standard in the diets of those who are looking towards a healthier lifestyle. The among of 3-fatty acids is about more than 2 times fishes. Past the seed, the fibre extracted from the ‘skin’ of the plant can be used to make clothing articles, beddings, ropes and more. The ancient Egyptians used flaxseed for nutritional and medicinal purposes about B.C 3000. They also used the fiber contained in the flax plant to make clothes, fishnets, and other products. Throughout history, flaxseed has been primarily used as a laxative. It is high in fiber and a gummy material called mucilage. These substances expand when they come in contact with water, so they add bulk to stool and help it move more quickly through the gastrointestinal tract, thereby acting as a laxative for constipation. The seeds and oil of the flax plant also contain substances that promote good health. Flaxseed and Corresponding Author Mohammad Sharrif Moghaddasi, Islamic Azad University/Saveh branch, Iran E-mail: [email protected] Adv. Environ. Biol., 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 flaxseed oil are rich in alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an essential fatty acid that appears to be beneficial for heart disease, inflammatory bowel disease, arthritis, and a variety of other health problems. Other plants that provide ALA include canola (rapeseed), soybean oil, walnuts, and pumpkin seed. ALA belongs to a group of substances called omega3 fatty acids. It is important to maintain an appropriate balance of omega-3 and omega-6 (another essential fatty acid) in the diet, as these two substances work together to promote health. Mackerel, salmon, and walnuts are also good sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Most omega-6 fatty acids tend to promote inflammation while omega-3 fatty acids help reduce inflammation. A healthy diet should consist of roughly 2 - 4 times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids. The typical American diet tends to contain 14 - 30 times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids, and many researchers believe this imbalance is a significant factor in the rising rate of inflammatory disorders in the United States, including heart disease, cancer, and arthritis. Other omega-3 fatty acids include those found in fish oil (docosahexaenoic acid or DHA, and eicosapentaenoic acid or EPA). ALA can be converted to long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (DHA and EPA) and can therefore be substituted for fish oils. However, EPA and DHA (the fish oils) are more rapidly incorporated into plasma and membrane lipids and produce more rapid effects than does ALA. Only a small amount of ALA is converted to DHA or EPA in the body, so larger quantities of flaxseed oil need to be taken to get the same effects from fish oils. Larger quantities of flaxseed oil may increase the chances of diarrhea and may increase blood sugar levels. One advantage of the consumption of ALA over omega-3 fats from fish is that the problem of insufficient vitamin E intake does not exist with high intake of ALA from plant sources. Generally, if an individual wishes to supplement the diet with an omega-3 fatty acid, fish oil products would bepreferred to flaxseed oil. Flax seed contains polyunsaturated fatty acids in high rates, saturated fatty acid in low rates, fiber in low rates with plenty of potassium, and small amounts of magnesium, iron, copper, zinc and various vitamins. It might be more suitable to say that 100 g flax seed contains 13.4 mg vitamin E; while 100 g flax oil contains about 450 kcal. The amino group acid profile of flax seed displays characteristics similar to soy flour. Flax seed is frequently recommended by nutritionists because of its contained rate of N-3 fatty acid (approximately four times more than Omage-6); its abundance with regards to soluble and insoluble fibers; and due to the fact that it is the richest source of lignans a kind of plant estrogen. In hormone-dependent types of 1381 cancer, lignans provide protection against cancer by intervening sex hormones; prevent tumor cells from growing. Each of the lignans contained in flax seed is a natural SERM (selective estrogen receptor modulator), protecting against harms of estrogen use and ensuring to benefit from all the other positive impacts at the same time. For example, whereas, they allow estrogen to set up connections in bones and thereby ensure growth. They do not allow it to penetrate into sensitive regions such as breasts and intra-uterus it may harm. Cancer risk falls down if an extra cell growth is not present. While flax seed contains a total of 246.6 mg plant estrogen in 100 g, this does not exceed 17 mg in 100 g in many other foodstuffs. Of fiber it contains, approximately two thirds bear characteristics of fiber insoluble in water, and the remaining of soluble fiber. Fibers insoluble in water increase stool density and decrease intestinal clearance time, thereby having an impact as preventing constipation and easing intestines. Fibers soluble in water contained in flax seed (mucilage glue/gum) maintain blood glucose level and reduce cholesterol level. There are also cancer preventive effects of high amount of fiber in the nutrition. Flax seed is the richest of all the foods in means of alphalinolenic acid (the most significant member of N-3 fatty acids) . A part of alpha-linolenic acid transforms into long-chain N-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA inside the body, which increase good cholesterol; have an impact as dropping high blood pressure; reduce blood clotting tendency; and decrease plasma triglyceride level and arrhythmia risk. Thus, alpha-linolenic acid has been found to decrease the risk of coronary heart disease. The research conducted on flax seed shows that regular use of flax seed, thus consumption of alpha-linoleic fat may prevent development of arteriosclerosis (vessel stiffness), and be effective in autoimmune disorders. Cancer preventive properties of balanced N-3 diet have been detected, too. Shifting of fatty acids balance towards N-6, saturated fatty acids and trans fats does not only imply our decreased consumption of N-3; those fats also happen to keep our body from making necessary benefit from N-3 fatty acids by inhibiting alpha-linoleic fatty acid from transforming into long-chain N-3 fatty acids. You may control whether it germinates by controlling its viability; it is not biable it does not germinate. Flax seeds may not be digested sufficiently even through a careful chewing as they are hard; and this causes them to be excreted without digestion. It is much more easier to digest ground flax seed. We may benefit from medicinal properties of flax seed on a higher scale if we eat it after grinding. Black pepper or coffee hand mill grinders, or electric grinders specially produced to grind this type of seeds may be utilized to grind flax seeds. Flax seed retain its freshness for a year at room temperature. 1382 Adv. Environ. Biol., 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 Ground flax seed on the other hand can be stored inside a jar with airtight cap in the refrigerator for 30 days. Bakery sector in the west has resorted to the method of adding ground flax seed into mixed grain bread for the purpose of meeting customer demands. Ground flax seed has also entered food industry via ready mixtures (cakes etc.), frozen pastry and ready products served by melting. Moreover, eggs enriched in means of N-3, obtained by feeding chickens flax seed, are present. For a person who consumes food equivalent to 2000 kcal a day, daily use of 1 tablespoon of ground flax seed will provide sufficient contribution with regards to N-3 fatty acids use. It was determined through laboratory studies that ground or unground seeds do not almost any of its N-3 fatty acids and lignans inside an oven at temperature of 178 degrees for 2 hours. However flax seed oil has lost its fiber and lignans in the seed, even if it is a good source of N-3 fatty acid. It is recommended that flax seed oil is not exposed to heat during use (in salads and after cooking dishes. Its use in traditional treatment Flax seed possesses antifungal, antimitotic and antioxidant properties. Mucilage contained in flax seeds draw water and swells in intestines, exercising effect as a mechanical laxative. It takes a little time for flax to exercise this effect, but it has an important advantage as it does not cause irritation. It may be used for a longer time compared to other laxatives. Its oil back up the lapactic effect. It is known to have been utilized with this purpose since the time of ancient Egyptians. It may cause irritations in digestive system. For treatment, one should eat 1-2 teaspoons of seed preferably before going to bed, and drink 2 glasses of water thereafter. Against bad cough, common cold, or catching chill, 1 tablespoon of flax seed is boiled in 3 cups of water for 10 minutes; left for soaking for 3-5 minutes, drained and then drunk. Vapor of this tea is inhaled through the nose. Regarding pulmonary diseases and pneumonia, 80 g flax seed is mixed into 40 g fennel seed, which takesa mushy shape in slightly warm water and placed on the chest and back after sandwiching inbetween cheese cloths. In healing furuncles, herpes zoster and bruises, 80 g flax seed is assumed a mushy shape together with 40 g mallow and then put on the lesion. Now it is a known fact that highly effective laxative medicines cause minerals necessary for the organism (especially potassium) to decrease and irritate intestines in case of continuous use. However, this sort of side effects is by no means in question in case of flax seed use. Because laxative effect of flax seed is a mechanical one. Flax seed tea: 1 dessertspoon of uncrushed seed is added into 1 glass of water, and left for soaking for 20-30 minutes with occasional stirs. Seeds are drained without squeezing and then obtained water is drunk by making slightly tepid. C In order to help newborn babies for dissolving phlegm, flax seed is pounded and given them to be licked together with sugar. C It is useful against dyspnea, asthma, dysphonia, bad cough and bronchitis. 1 tablespoon of roasted and milled flax seed is mixed with honey, and is eaten one hour before meals. C If flax seed powder is boiled on fire with sufficient amount of water for a mushy consistency, and then put on the chest while it is at normal temperature, this will soften the chest. C Helps expel kidney stones; a tablespoon of flax seed, a tablespoon of hollyhock root and half a teaspoon of licorice are put into one liter of water. It is boiled for half an hour and drained; then 3-4 tepid glasses of this mixture are drunk on an empty stomach. C A tablespoon of powdered flax seed is swallowed with a glass of water an hour before meals. C Clears out constipation; flax seed is a natural laxative. A teaspoon of flax seed powder is put into a glass of hot water, brewed and drained. A cup of this is drunk a day. C Precautions can be taken against prostate cancer with flax seed support exercised with a low-fat diet. C Flax seed are recommended for diabetic patients, too. 1 tablespoon of flax seed is boiled in 1 liter of water until the water gets down to 7/2 liters. Obtained ferment is drunk 3 times a day. C Used against pulmonary tuberculosis, hemoptysis, splenomegaly and stomach ulcer. Flax seed flour in an amount of 10-gram for each is assumed a paste consistency with honey, 30-40 g of this paste is swallowed on an empty stomach in the morning. C Regarding stomach ulcer; 1 kg flax seed is pounded in press, boiled with 1 kg milk, taken off the stove when it gains a thick consistency, and taken in one tablespoon half an hour before meals. C It is put on rectum in a tepid mushy form for treatment of hemorrhoids, and on the region for whitlows, furuncles, sprains and dislocations. Given a mushy form and then put on the problematic region for treatment of inflammations and swellings. C Cures inflammations of intestines and abdominal pains. Disinfects gastrointestinal tract. Adv. Environ. Biol., 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C Its vapor is applied like incense against common cold. Good for bad colds. For tooth abscess, it is mixed with milk and heated; applied in mushy form between cheesecloth exteriorly on painful and abscessed tooth. Used in mushy form against abscesses in animals, too. As an aphrodisiac; flax seed is given a paste consistency together with honey and black pepper and then swallowed. Strengthens the nervous system. Strengthens the memory. Good for impairment of concentration. Good for age-associated distractibility. Ensures rapid healing of wounds through external use. Protects the skin against getting dry. ( due to its omega – 3 fatty acid content) Used in eczema and psoriasis diseases. Used as compress on calluses. Exercises a positive impact on respiratory tract diseases. Good for mental disorders. Cures bad cough. Used as mouthwash in oral cavity, throat and gingival disorders. Its fibers are utilized in industry, especially in textile industry. Boosts sexual potency in men. Reduces the risk of catching breast and colon cancer. Provides contribution to a healthy skin formation. Useful in adjusting blood pressure. Lowers sugar in blood. A source of healing Flax, with its Latin name ‘Linum Usitatissimum’, is among the first cultivated products in the world. It has been utilized not only in the textile industry and cloth manufacturing, but also as a foodstuff for about 10,000 years back. At least 5,000 years before the birth of Christ, Egyptians began to cultivate flax plant to wrap mummies. Nevertheless, it is cultivated all over the world today, including Turkey and Iran. Has a weight loss property too The most significant property of flax which makes it attractive particularly for women is that it has a weight loss property. It arouses a feeling of fullness and causes one to eat less. Its weight loss property actually results from Omega-3 fatty acids it contains. Flax seed has just the same effect as the fish. Flax seed contains as much Omega-3 oil as 1383 salmon. One may averagely lose 4-5 kilos in a month if taken one tablespoon a day. Nevertheless this naturally varies from person to person and from structure to structure. It is of great importance to consult with an expert. For some reason, ‘natural’ foods or plants are believed to be harmless. Yet, a plant too may result in health problems if used unconsciously. If you consume flax seed in excess doses, intestines soften way too much and body losses extreme amounts of water. Consequently, extreme weight loss occurs. Its ideal use is a tablespoon a day. But, dosage that should be taken may differ depending on weight problem. In fact, people can adjust this dosage themselves. If it is used in a way that intestines do not get too softened, that means right dosage is not exceed. Flax seed is a shiny substance which is similar to sesame, but brown in color is utilized especially in the food industry, by adding into numerous bakery products, bread, cookies and pastries being in the first place. It is possible to use flax seed in form of oil, seed or ground powder. Its use method varies according to purpose. It may be necessary to consume it with its shell, and sometimes without it. It is more beneficial to apply it without grinding on people who do not consume pulpy, fibrous foods in sufficient amounts. It is more useful to consume it in its seed form, in a pulpy, fibrous structure. A person, who is able to digest foods in a normal way, can consume it in its seed form. It may cause gas in some people; nevertheless it is recommended that those people drink a cup of fennel tea after flax seed. Flax seed does not have any known serious side effect. The greatest effect of flax seed is that it acts as a laxative, i.e., activates intestines. Experts recommend flax seeds especially for people with constipation problem. Stating that its seeds are consumed generally, yet flax seed oil too has started to become widespread in recent years, experts add; “Flax seed oil is being used as an assistant to activate and clean intestines, and ease surfaces of inner organs. It also softens the skin and is good for bad cough. It is not something that easily spoils. That means; it can be stored in any jar for a long time. It can be also used as mouthwash in oral cavity, throat and gingival disorders. It has positive effects on bad cough, coughing fit and stomach problems like gastritis, too.” Experts put emphasis on the fact that flax seed contains a serious amount of Vitamin B12; and particularly vegetarians should be careful for flax seed intake. “Number of vegetarians has increased dramatically in recent years. Subjects vegetarians should be careful about are iron, zinc and Vitamin B12 with regards to anemia. Iron and zinc are present within numerous plants in the nature. But the only foodstuff which contains high rates of B12 except for animals and animal protein is flax seed. Therefore flax seed is highly necessary for 1384 Adv. Environ. Biol., 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 vegetarians in particular with regards to Vitamin B12.” C Stay young with flax seed Anti-ageing has begun to get increasingly widespread in the world. So to speak; people compete with each other to stay young’, thin and fit. Here, according to experts, flax seed has positive effects on this issue too. It is stated that Flax seed postpones ageing; “Omega-3, Vitamin B12 and fibers in flax seed postpone ageing by keeping cells young. However, if taken in excessive amounts, it would not exercise a weight loss effect since this plant too contains fat and vitamins. But one or half a teaspoon of flax seed would be sufficient in means of daily consumption.” Experts also mention that benefits of flax seed are not widely known, thus people do not consume this plant much. Flax Seed Oil It is the vegetable oil with the highest amount of Omega 3 fatty acid which lowers LDL cholesterol and triglyceride level. Omega 3 need may be satisfied by means of adding flax seed into bakery products or eating eggs obtained from chickens fed with flax seed. Flax seed prohibits inflammations, prevents swelling and pain in joint diseases. It is also useful in recovering from skin diseases such as psoriasis. Fibrous elements are also present in flax seed and flax seed preparations. Those fibrous elements are effective with polyunsaturated fatty acids both in recovering of cholesterol level and in strengthening of immune system. It was demonstrated in experimental animals fed with flax seed that hormone-associated types of cancer (breast, uterine and prostate) were prevented to occur. This positive effect is thanks to phytoestrogen (natural plant estrogen hormone ). Moreover, flax seed oil; C REGULATES CHOLESTEROL AND BLOOD PRESSURE; PROVIDES PROTECTION AGAINST HEART DISEASES: It was determined through the research that flax seed oil reduces heart attack risk by lowering cholesterol. Use of flax seed oil prevents high blood pressure, cholesterol and angina as well. A research conducted at Boston’s Simmons College has revealed that flax seed oil prevents secondary heart attacks and circulatory disorders. C PROVIDES PROTECTION AGAINST GOUT AND SKIN DISEASES: Regarding skin diseases, flax seed oil not only reduces inflammation in joints, but also lowers the cholesterol level raised by the disease. Use of flax seed oil in gout disease eliminates swelling and joint pains caused by the disease. C C C C C C PROVIDES PROTECTION AGAINST CONSTIPATION, HEMORRHOIDS AND DIVERTICULAR DISORDERS: Flax seed prevents constipation and hemorrhoids by facilitating stool pass in intestines due to its fibrous structure. It prohibits formation of gallstones and eradicated already formed gallstones. CURES ACNE, ECZEMA AND PSORIASIS DISEASES: It is known that basic fatty acid present in flax seed oil has skin healing properties. Skin diseases such as psoriasis, strawberry marks fail to resist against antiinflammatory effects of EFA, and fade away. Sunburns heal faster when treated with flax seed oil. FEEDS HAIR AND FINGERS: Omega-3 fatty acids, present in flax seed oil in abundance, are observed to exercise effect on healthy growing of hair and finger. REDUCES NERVOUS SYSTEM DISORDERS WHICH CAUSE OTHER DISORDERS SUCH AS PARESTHESIA AND FORMICATION: EFAs present in flax seed oil transmission of neural impulses. Neural nutrient properties of this oil can be used in treatment of Parkinson’s disease and as a protective against diseases such as diabetes and sclerosis. REDUCES CANCER RISK AND POSTPONES EFFECTS OF AGING: Lignans present in flax seed oil are thought to provide protection against breast, colon, prostate and even skin cancer. It was determined through studies conducted at University of Toronto that women who have caught breast cancer respond to the treatment administered with flax seed oil, regardless of advancement degree of the cancer. Studies have also revealed that lignans postpone various effect of aging. CURES MANIFESTATIONS OF MENOPAUSE, MENSTRUAL CRAMPS AND INFERTILITY IN WOMEN: Hormone stabilizer lignans and plant estrogens in flax seed oil are highly useful in fighting against menstrual problems and menopause since they help balance estrogen and progesterone levels of women. Flax seed oil increases uterus functions and that is why it eradicates infertility problem. EFFECTIVE AGAINST PROSTATE, INFERTILITY IN MEN AND IMPOTENCY: EFAs present in flax seed oil prevents prostate from swelling and getting inflamed. Swelling of urinary bladders, which is the manifestation of prostate, decreases after use of this oil. EFAs protect sperm health at the same time, which is highly significant for treatment of infertility in men. Good against stomach-intestine problems; 1385 Adv. Environ. Biol., 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 strengthens immune system. Strengthens bones. Beneficial especially during menopause period. Prevents rheumatismal diseases. Strengthens the nervous system. Strengthens the memory. Stabilizes blood sugar. Good for impairment of concentration. Good for age-associated distractibility. Ensures rapid healing of wounds through external use. Softens the skin. Useful against pain and swelling in joint disorders. Used as compress on calluses. Exercises a positive impact on respiratory tract diseases. Good for mental disorders. Cures bad coughing. Used as mouthwash in oral cavity, throat and gingival disorders. Effective against impotency, prostate and infertility. Points to consider while using flax seed oil - Do not heat or expose it to heat. It should not be used in preparing dishes. - It should be protected against light, too. - Prefer those sold in small bottles instead of those sold in large bottles. - It is better to store it by freezing. - Date of production and expiry date can be found on product tag. Studies suggest that flaxseed (both the ALA in the flaxseed oil and the lignans in the seed) may play a role in the Prevention and tratement of the folowing helth conditions: High cholesterol People who follow a Mediterranean diet tend to have higher HDL ("good") cholesterol levels. The Mediterranean diet consists of a healthy balance between omega-3, omega-6, and omega-9 (found in olive oil) fatty acids. It emphasizes whole grains, root and green vegetables, daily intake of fruit, fish and poultry, olive and canola oils, and ALA (from flaxseed, flaxseed oil, and walnuts), along with discouragement of ingestion of red meat and not much use of butter and cream. Flaxseed and flaxseed oil have been reported to possess cholesterol-lowering properties in laboratory studies. Human studies have used flaxseed products and measured effects on cholesterol, with mixed results. A human study found that dietary flaxseed significantly improved lipid (cholesterol) profile in patients with high cholesterol, and may favorably modify cardiovascular risk factors. Flaxseed is one of the richest sources of alphalinolenic acid (ALA), that is, the parent compound of Omega-3 fatty acids. Studies have shown that those following the Mediterranean diets have superior HDL cholesterol levels, due to the strong emphasis on a balance between Omega-3, Omega-6 and Omega-9 fatty acids. HDL – High Density Lipoprotein, “a blood constituent involved in the transport of cholesterol and associated with a decreased risk of atherosclerosis and heart attack.” “Flaxseed and flaxseed oil have been reported to possess cholesterol-lowering properties in laboratory studies.” This is due to ALA inhibiting the production of triglycerides and Very Low Density Lipoprotein (VLDL, bad cholesterol) in the liver. Heart disease A diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts or legumes, and ALA-rich foods may substantially reduce the recurrence of heart disease. One of the best ways to help prevent and treat heart disease is to eat a low-fat diet and to replace foods rich in saturated and trans-fat with those that are rich in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats (including omega-3 fatty acids from flaxseed). Evidence suggests that people who eat an ALA-rich diet are less likely to suffer a fatal heart attack. C ALA may reduce heart disease risks through a variety of biological mechanisms, including platelet function (making them less "sticky"), inflammation, blood vessel health, and arrhythmia (irregular heart beat). C Several human studies also suggest that diets rich in omega-3 fatty acids (including ALA) may lower blood pressure. C The occurrence and recurrence rate of heart disease has been reportedly lower with the consumption of foods abundant in ALA. This effect is achieved through biological mechanisms, including but not limited to reduction of inflammation and an increase in the blood vessel health. Studies have also reported that lowered blood pressure is another benefit provided by ALA that may reduce the risk of heart disease. Menopausal symptoms Flaxseed was compared to hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in menopausal women. 40 g of flaxseed was reported to be equally effective as HRT for mild menopausal symptoms (hot flashes, mood disturbances, vaginal dryness) and to lower blood sugar levels. However, a few studies report no benefits in reducing menopausal symptoms when using flaxseed oil. Flaxseed was also found to be beneficial in bone health, potentially decreasing the chances of developing osteoporosis. 1386 Adv. Environ. Biol., 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 In addition to the important omega-3 fatty acid ALA, flaxseed (not the oil) also contains a group of chemicals called lignans that may protect the body from cancer. Lignans are plant compounds that mimic the action of the natural hormone estrogen. For this reason, lignans are considered phyto (plant) estrogens. Because of their estrogen-like activity, scientists aren't sure whether flaxseed would be harmful or helpful for breast cancer. Several laboratory studies support the use of flaxseed oil in preventing cancer development. Laboratory studies have reported reduction in breast tumor growth and metastasis (spreading) in rats. A human study has examined the effects of dietary flaxseed in postmenopausal patients with newly diagnosed breast cancer. The authors found that dietary flaxseed may have the potential to reduce tumor growth in patients with breast cancer. progression than those who did not consume the diet. However, a study of about 47,000 men found that ALA omega-3 fatty acids may stimulate the growth of prostate tumors in men with advanced prostate cancer. The researchers found that men who were suffering from advanced prostate cancer had higher quantities of ALA from nonanimal as well as meat and dairy sources. The study included men that were scheduled for a prostatectomy and gave them 30 grams of flaxseed for 30 days prior to their surgery. The men that took the flaxseed along with a low-fat diet were compared to the men that were only following a low-fat diet and also men that made no adjustments to their diet. The tumours were then removed and analyzed by the researchers and they found that the men who had taken the flaxseed had slower growth rates of their tumors. The scientists believe that the lignans in flaxseed might work by choking the blood supply off to the tumors, in essence stunting their growth. Colon cancer Breast Cancer Laboratory studies show that lignans may slow the growth of colon tumor cells and some studies have found that flaxseed may significantly reduce the number of abnormal cell growths (early markers of colon cancer). More research is needed. A Canadian study published in the Journal of Nutrition followed 1,095 people that were diagnosed with colon cancer and 1,890 people who were cancer-free. The participants had to complete a questionnaire about their diet and provide blood samples. The participants who had a larger amount of lignan-rich foods in their diet has a 27 percent lower risk of colon cancer compared with the other group who had the lowest amount of lignans in their system. Those who had the highest level of isoflavones had a 29 percent lower risk of developing colon cancer compared with people who consume very small amounts. A study performed at the University of Toronto and Princess Margaret Hospitals in Toronto found that women with breast cancer benefited from flaxseed. The study followed 9 women with newly diagnosed breast cancer tumors. One group of women were eating 25 grams of ground flax in a muffin each day and the other half were given a control muffin that was whole-wheat flour. The study lasted for approximately five and a half weeks and the women that ate the flax muffins showed significant reductions in breast cancer cell proliferation and the tumor growth was smaller compared with the women eating the whole-wheat flour muffins. Lignans from flaxseed Prostate cancer Prostate cancer is a hormone-sensitive cancer meaning tumor growth is linked by the sex hormone called testosterone and the metabolite called dihydrotestosterone. A study led by Duke University Medical Center found that flaxseed appears to stop the formation of prostate tumours. The findings showed that the compounds, called lignans, may be able to interrupt the process of the cells dividing and becoming cancerous. Researchers are investigating whether lignans in flaxseed help prevent prostate cancer. In one study that compared 25 men with prostate cancer to the same number of men without the disease, researchers found that men who consumed a low-fat, flaxseedsupplemented diet for 1 month had slower tumor Flax and Osteoporosis Researchers from Oklahoma State University found from tests on postmenopausal women that flax had a positive effect on their bones. The lignans and ALA in flaxseed may help in preventing bone loss and osteoporosis by blocking the production of prostaglandins and decreasing the rate of bone resorption, which increase bone loss. Flax and Kidney Disease Researchers at the University of Toronto found that ground flax reduced the inflammation of the kidneys and improves the function of patients with chronic, inflammatory autoimmune disease with major health consequences, including renal failure, arthritis, thrombosis, and seizures. Patients with these conditions were given 15-45 grams of flax on a daily basis for a total of four weeks and they showed 1387 Adv. Environ. Biol., 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 improved kidney function and reduced inflammation. Flax and Immune System Studies from the University of Toronto regarding the effects of flaxseed on the immune system have favorably shown that the body’s ability to defend itself against bacteria and viruses is increased with the use of flaxseed. Flax and ADHD The Department of Foods and Nutrition at Purdue University have found that boys who have been diagnosed with ADHD had significantly lower concentrations of certain EFAS in their blood. The use of flaxseed to increase this EFA level is a safe and beneficial treatment. Flax and Diabetes The University of Manitoba is currently studying the effects of ground flax and flax oil on blood glucose and insulin levels in people with type 2 diabetes. In the study so far flax consumption lowers the blood glucose level in healthy young adults. One study had six healthy volunteers fast overnight and in the morning they consumed a test meal containing 50 grams of bread with either ground flax or white flour. The blood glucose response was 28% lower after eating the flax bread compared with the white flour bread. Skin cancer Animal studies suggest that lignans from flaxseed may also offer some protection against skin cancer including, possibly, the prevention of metastatic spread of melanoma from the skin to the lungs. Other uses Although further research is needed, preliminary evidence suggests that omega-3 fatty acids may help protect against certain infections and treating a variety of conditions, including ulcers, migraine headaches, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, addiction, eating disorders, preterm labor, emphysema, psoriasis, glaucoma, Lyme disease, lupus, and panic attacks. Also it is good for MİGRENS headech, MS and PARKİNSON. especially in hormone sensitive cancers, such as breast and prostate cancer. The US Department of Agriculture has stated that flaxseed contains 27 identifiable cancer preventative compounds. Does flax seed have any harm? How do harms of flax oil occur? Side effects of flax seed may appear in consequence of wrong method and amount of use. It should be stored and utilized in proper conditions. Its intake in a wrong way will have negative effects on immune system due to its tendency to rapid spoiling. It is recommended that flax seed and particularly flax seed oil should be consumed fresh, and stored at -7 degrees in the refrigerator. It is also recomended that some harmful substances like cancer may reproduce in case it spoils and one consumes it in this spoiled condition. Plant Description: Flax is an annual plant that thrives in deep moist soils rich in sand, silt, and clay. The small, ovalshaped seeds of the flax plant contain oil (sometimes called linseed oil). Its roots are thin and in form of taproot. Its length varies between 50 – 100 cm. Its leaves are lined on the body in the shape of pikes placed on it. Its flowers resemble an umbrella; and are bright blue, blue, white and pink in color. Roots are 1 mm in thickness, 2 – 4 mm in width and 4 – 6 mm in length; shaped like eggs; yellowish, red and brown in color. Flexseed cemichals: Flaxseed contains several phyto (plant) compounds that may be beneficial in humans, including: C Fiber (including soluble and insoluble) C Protein -- approximately 20% C Lignans C Essential fatty acids (ALA) -- flaxseed is approximately 35% oil, of which 55% is ALA. The laxative effect of flaxseed is due to its fiber and mucilage content. As described earlier, phytoestrogens, known as lignans, appear to play a role in the cancer protective effects of this plant. Other health benefits of flaxseed (such as protection from heart disease and arthritis) are likely due to its high concentration of the omega-3 fatty acid ALA. Flaxseed Attributes and Medical Data Composition: The National Cancer Institute has released a report stating that flax as a food has been identified as having potential cancer fighting properties High Amounts of Mucilage Which Is of Top Priority in Plant’s Used for Treatment Purposes. 1388 Adv. Environ. Biol., 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 Nutritional Information of Flax Seed Percentages are relative to the US recommendations for adults. (Source: USDA Nutritional Database) Nutritional Value per 100g (3.5 oz) – 530 kcal 2230 kJ Sugar 1.55 g N/A Folate 0 μg 0% Dietary Fibre 27.3 g N/A Vitamin C 0.6 mg 1% Fat 42.16 g N/A Calcium 255 mg 26% Protein 18.29 g N/A Iron 5.73 mg 46% Thiamin 1.644 mg 126% Magnesium 392 mg 106% Riboflavin 0.161 mg 11% Phosphorus 642 mg 92% Niacin 3.08 mg 21% Potassium 813 mg 17% Pantothenic Acid 0.985 mg 20% Zinc 4.34mg 43% Vitamin B6 0.473 mg 36% Fatty Acid Information of Flax Seed Oil (Source: Flax Council of Canada) Fatty Acid Breakdown %/100Saturated Fatty Acids 9 Monounsaturated 18 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids • Omega-3 Fatty Acids 57 • Omega-6 Fatty Acids 16 Fixed Oil Which Increases Effectiveness of Mucilage. Linamarin Which Contains a Very Low Amount of Hydrocyanic. Linamarin Is a Glycoside. Hydrocyanic Is a Toxic Substance, but the Rate Contained by the Plant Is So Low That it Does Not Pose Any Danger Even If Used in High Doses. It contains about 41%, oil Omega 3 and 6 at 73% and oleic, linoleic, palmitic and alpha-linoleic at remaining rates. Available Forms: Flaxseed oil should be refrigerated. Use whole flaxseeds within 24 hours of grinding, otherwise the ingredients lose their activity. Flaxseeds are also available ground in a special mylar package so that the components in the flaxseeds stay active. Ripe seeds, linseed cakes, powder, capsules, and flaxseed oil are all available at health food and grocery stores. How to Take It: Pediatric Flaxseed oil may be added to a child's diet to help balance fatty acids. If an infant is breastfed, the mother may ingest oil or fresh ground seed to increase fat content in breast milk. See adult dosage below. Children (2 - 12 years): 1 teaspoonful (tsp) daily of ground flaxseeds, or 1 tsp of fresh flaxseed oil for constipation. Adult Flaxseed: Take 1 tablespoonful (tbsp), 2 - 3 times daily or 2 - 4 tbsp, 1 time daily. Grind before eating and take with lots of water. Flaxseed oil: Take 1 - 2 tablespoonfuls daily, or 1 - 2 capsules daily. Flaxseed oil is often used in a liquid form, which contains approximately 7 g of ALA per 15 mL tbsp, and contains approximately 130 calories. As a substitute for fish oil, a dose of 7.2 grams of flaxseed is approximately equivalent to 1 gram of fish oil. Precautions: The use of herbs is a time-honored approach to strengthening the body and treating disease. Herbs, however, contain components that can trigger side effects and interact with other herbs, supplements, or medications. For these reasons, herbs should be taken with care, under the supervision of a health care provider qualified in the field of botanical medicine. C Although studies have found that regular consumption of fish (which includes the omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA) may reduce the risk of macular degeneration, a recent study including two large groups of men and women found that diets rich in ALA may increase the risk of this disease. Ask your health care provider. C Flaxseed may slow down the absorption of oral medications or other nutrients if taken at the same time. Therefore, flaxseed should be ingested several hours before, or after medicines or supplements. Talk to your health care provider before taking flaxseed if you regularly take any prescription or nonprescription medications, or dietary supplements. C People with either diabetes or schizophrenia may lack the ability to convert ALA to EPA and DHA, the forms of omega-3 fatty acids that are generally made from ALA and are more readily used by the body. Therefore, people with these conditions should obtain their omega-3 fatty acids directly from dietary sources rich in EPA and DHA, such as cold water fish (including mackerel, salmon, or whitefish). C Do not use flaxseed products or ALA if you have diabetes, prostate problems, breast cancer, or schizophrenia without the advice and supervision of a qualified health care provider. 1389 Adv. Environ. Biol., 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 Possible Interactions: Refrences Flaxseed supplements may alter the effects of some prescription and nonprescription medications. If you are currently being treated with any of the following medications, you should not use flaxseed without first talking to your health care provider: 1. 2. Blood-Thinning Medications Omega-3 fatty acids may increase the effects of blood-thinning medications, including aspirin and warfarin. While the combination of aspirin and omega-3 fatty acids may be helpful under certain circumstances (such as heart disease), they should only be taken together under the guidance and supervision of a qualified health care provider. Diabetic Medications If you are taking medicines for diabetes, including insulin, you should only use flaxseed (ALA) under the supervision of a qualified health care provider. Oral Contraceptives or Hormonal replacement therapy (HRT) -- Flaxseed may alter hormonal levels and alter the effects of oral contraceptives or HRT. Only use flaxseed under the supervision of a qualified health care provider if you are taking hormonal altering medications such as oral contraceptives or HRT. Other Avoid taking flaxseed at the same time of day as medications and other supplements, as it may slow down the absorption of oral medications or other nutrients if taken at the same time. Take the flaxseed either 1 hour before or 2 hours after taking any prescription or nonprescription medicine or dietary supplement. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Other Places of Use: Obtained from seeds of the plant and frequently utilized in dyeing, linoleum manufacturing, and sometimes food industries, this oil is called flax seed or linseed oil. Linseed oil is the top quality and active oil at the highest rate among vegetable oils. Flax seed oil contains Omega-3 fatty acid. After crushing seeds of the plant and draining the oil, its remaining pulp makes a valuable animal feed. Fibers obtained from the body of flax are used in textile industry, as to manufacture flax yarn. Gathering – Storing: Seeds are generally gathered in the month of September after they are ripe thoroughly, and when flower capsules gets brown well enough. Seeds are dried fairly well after blending thoroughly by using a thresher. 11. 12. 13. 14. Angerer, P., C. von Schacky, 2000. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the cardiovascular system. Curr Opin Lipidol., 11(1): 57-63. Aronson, W.J., R.J. Arnard, S.J. Freedland et al., J. Urol., 2010. Growth inhibitory effect of low fat diet on prostate cancer cells: results of a prospective randomized dietary intervention trial in men with prostate cancer, 183(1): 345-50 (Abstract). Anderson, B.M. and D.W. Ma, 2009. Are all n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids created equal? Lipids Health Dis., 8: 33. (Full text). Appel, L.J., 1999. Nonpharmacologic therapies that reduce blood pressure: a fresh perspective. Clin Cadiol., 22(Suppl. III): III1-III5. Arnold, L.E., D. Kleykamp, N. Votolato, R.A. Gibson, L. Horrocks, 1994. Potential link between dietary intake of fatty acid and behavior: pilot exploration of serum lipids in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol., 4(3): 171-182. Berquin, I.M., I.J. Edwards and Y.Q. Chen, 2008. Cancer Lett 2008 Multi-targeted therapy of cancer by omega-3 fatty acids, 269(2): 363-77 (Full text). Boelsma, E., H.F. Hendriks, L. Roza, 2001. Nutritional skin care: health effects of micronutrients and fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr., 73(5): 853-864. Bommareddy, A., B.L. Arasada, D.P. Mathees, C. Dwivedi, 2006. Chemopreventive effects of dietary flaxseed on colon tumor development. Nutr Cancer, 54(2): 216-22. Buck, K., A.K. Zaineddin, A. Vrieling, et al., 2010. Am J Clin Nutr Meta-analyses of lignans and enterolignans in relation to breast cancer risk. (Abstract). Brouwer, I.A., 2008. Omega-3 PUFA: Good or bad for prostate cancer?. Prostaglandins Luekot Essent Fatty Acids., 79(3-5): 97-9. (Abstract). Bruinsma, K.A., D.L. Taren, 2000. Dieting, essential fatty acid intake, and depression. Nutrition Rev., 58(4): 98-108. Caron, M.F., C.M. White, 2001. Evaluation of the antihyperlipidemic properties of dietary supplements. Pharmacotherapy, 21(4): 481-487. Carayol, M., P. Groscluade and C. Delpierre, 2010. Prospective studies of dietary alphalinolenic acid intake and prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis.. Cancer Causes Control, 21(3): 347-55 (Abstract). Cellini, M., N. Caramazzu, P. Mangiafico, G.L. Possati, R. Caramazza, 1998. Fatty acid use in glaucomatous optic neuropathy treatment. Acta Ophthalmol Scand Suppl., 227: 41-42. Adv. Environ. Biol., 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 15. Cho, E., S. Hung, W.C. Willet, D. Spiegelman, E.B. Rimm, J.M. Seddon, et al., 2001. Prospective study of dietary fat and the risk of age-related macular degeneration. Am J Clin Nutr., 73(2): 209-218. 16. Clark, W.F., C. Kortas, A.P. Heidenheim, J. Garland, E. Spanner, A. Parbtani, 2001. Flaxseed in lupus nephritis: a two-year nonplacebocontrolled crossover study. J Am Coll Nutr., 20(2 Suppl): 143-148. 17. Curtis, C.L., Hughes C.E., Flannery C.R., Little C.B., Harwood J.L., B. Caterson, 2000. N-3 fatty acids specifically modulate catabolic factors involved in articular cartilage degradation. J Biol Chem., 275(2): 721-724. 18. Dahl, W.J., E.A. Lockert, A.L. Cammer, S.J. Whiting, 2005. Effects of flax fiber on laxation and glycemic response in healthy volunteers. J Med Food, 8(4): 508-11. 19. deDeckere, E.A.M., O. Korver, P.M. Verschuren, M.B. Katan, 1998. Health aspects of fish and n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from plant and marine origin. Eur J Clin Nutr., 52(10): 749-753. 20. de Logeril, M., P. Salen, J.L. Martin, I. Monjaud, J. Delaye, N. Mamelle, 1999. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation, 99(6): 779-785. 21. Demark-Wahnefried, W., D.T. Price, T.J. Polascik, et al., 2001. Pilot study of dietary fat restriction and flaxseed supplementation in men with prostate cancer before surgery: exploring the effects on hormonal levels, prostate-specific antigen, and histopathologic features. Urology, 58(1): 47-52. 22. Deutch, B., 1995. Menstrual pain in Danish women correlated with low n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake. Eur J Clin Nutr., 49(7): 508516. 23. Dodin, S. et al., 2008. Flaxseed on cardiovascular disease markers in healthy menopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Nutrition, 24(1): 23-30. 24. Dodin, S., A. Lemay, H. Jacques, F. Legare, J.C. Forest, B. Masse, 2005. The effects of flaxseed dietary supplement on lipid profile, bone mineral density, and symptoms in menopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, wheat germ placebocontrolled clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab., 90(3): 1390-7. 25. Edwards, R., M. Peet, J. Shay, D. Horrobin, 1998. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in the diet and in red blood cell membranes of depressed patients. J Affect Disord., 48(2-3): 149-155. 1390 26. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on cancer risk, 2006. A systematic review MacLean CH, Newberry SJ, Mojica WA et al. Jama, 295(4): 403-15 (Full text). 27. Freeman, V.L., M. Meydani, S. Yong, J. Pyle, R.C. Flanigan, W.B. Waters, E.M. Wojcik, 2000. Prostatic levels of fatty acids and the histopathology of localized prostate cancer. J Urol., 164(6): 2168-2172. 28. Flax and flaxseed oil (Linum usitatissimum), 2005. A review by the Natural Standard Research Collaboration. Basch E, Bent S, Collins J, Dacey C, Hammerness P, Harrison, M, Smith M, Szapary P, Ulbricht C, Vora M & Weissner W. J Soc Integr Oncol., Summer, 5(3): 92-105. (Abstract). 29. Flaxseed supplementation (not dietary fat restriction) reduces prostate cancer proliferation rates in men presurgery. Demark-Wahnefried W, Polascik TJ, George SL et al. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008 Dec.,17(12): 3577-87 (Full text). 30. Frieri, G., M.T. Pimpo, A. Palombieri, D. Melideo, A. Marcheggiano, R. Caprilli, et al., 2000. Polyunsaturated fatty acid dietary supplementation: an adjuvant approach to treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection. Nut Res., 20(7): 907-916. 31. Geerling, B.J., A. Badart-Smook, C. van Deursen, A.C. van Houwelingen, M.G. Russel, R.W. Stockbrugger, et al., 2000. Nutritional supplementation with N-3 fatty acids and antioxidants in patients iwth Crohn's disease in remission: effects on antioxidant status and fatty acid profile. IBD., 6(2): 77-84. 32. GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators, 1999. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Lancet. 354: 447-455. 33. Griel, A.E., P.M. Kris-Etherton, K.F. Hilpert, G. Zhao, S.G. West, R.L. Corwin, 2007. An increase in dietary n-3 fatty acids decreases a marker of bone resorption in humans. Nutr J. 6(1): 2 [Epub ahead of print]. 34. Hall, C., M.C. Tulbek, Y. Xu, 2006. Flaxseed. Adv Food Nutr Res., 51: 1-97. 35. Hallund, J., I. Tetens, S. Bugel, T. Tholstrup, M. Ferrari, T. Teerlink, A. Kjaer, N. Wiinberg, 2006. Daily consumption for six weeks of a lignan complex isolated from flaxseed does not affect endothelial function in healthy postmenopausal women. J Nutr., 136(9): 2314-8. 36. Haggans, C.J., A.M. Hutchins, B.A. Olson, W. Thomas, M.C. Martini, J.L. Slavin, 1999. Effect of flaxseed consumption on urinary estrogen metabolites in postmenopausal women. Nutr Canc., 33(2): 188-195. Adv. Environ. Biol., 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 37. Harper, C.R., M.J. Edwards, A.P. DeFilipis, T.A. Jacobson, 2006. Flaxseed oil increases the plasma concentrations of cardioprotective (n-3) fatty acids in humans. J Nutr., 136(1): 83-7. 38. Harris, W.S., 1997. N-3 fatty acids and serum lipoproteins: human studies. Am J Clin Nutr., 65(5): 1645S (10). 39. Health effects with consumption of the flax lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside. Adolphe JL, Whiting SJ et al. Br J Nutr 2010. 103(7): 929-38 (Abstract). 40. Hibbeln, J.R., N. Salem, Jr., 1995. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and depression: when cholesterol does not satisfy. Am J Clin Nut., 62(1): 1-9. 41. Holman, R.T., C.E. Adams, R.A. Nelson, S.J. Grater, J.A. Jaskiewicz, S.B. Johnson, et al., 1995. Patients with anorexia nervosa demonstrate deficiencies of selected essential fatty acids, compensatory changes in nonessential fatty acids and decreased fluidity of plasma lipids. J Nutr., 125: 901-907. 42. Hrboticky, N., B. Zimmer, P.C. Weber, 1996. Alpha-Linolenic acid reduces the lovastatininduced rise in arachidonic acid and elevates cellular and lipoprotein eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid levels in Hep G2 cells. J Nutr Biochem., 7: 465-471. 43. Hu, F.B., M.J. Stampfer, J.E. Manson et al., 1999. Dietary intake of alpha-linolenic acid and risk of fatal ischemic heart disease among women. Am J Clin Nutr., 69: 890-897. 44. Hutchins, A.M., M.C. Martini, B.A. Olson, W. Thomas, J.L. Slavin, 2001. Flaxseed consumption influences endogenous hormone concentrations in postmenopausal women. Nutr Cancer, 39(1): 58-65. 45. Jenab, M., L.U. Thompson, 1996. The influence of flaxseed and lignans on colon carcinogenesis and ß-glucuronidase activity. Carcinogenesis, 17(6): 1343-1348. 46. Klurfeld, D.M., A.W. Bull, 1997. Fatty acids and colon cancer in experimental models. Am J Clin Nut., 66(6 Suppl): 1530S-1538S. 47. Kremer, J.M., 2000. N-3 fatty acid supplements in rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Clin Nutr., (suppl 1): 349S-351S. 48. Kris-Etherton, P., R.H. Eckel, B.V. Howard, St. S. Jeor, T.L. Bazzare, 2001. AHA Science Advisory: Lyon Diet Heart Study. Benefits of a Mediterranean-style, National Cholesterol Education Program/American Heart Association Step I Dietary Pattern on Cardiovascular Disease. Circulation, 103: 18-23. 49. Kurzer, M.S., X. Xu, 1997. Dietary phytoestrogens. Ann Rev Nutr., 17: 353-381. 50. Laugharne, J.D., J.E. Mellor, M. Peet, 1996. Fatty acids and schizophrenia. Lipids, 31(Suppl): S-163-165. 1391 51. LaValle, J.B., D.L. Krinsky, E.B. Hawkins, et al., 2000. Natural Therapeutics Pocket Guide. Hudson, OH: Lexi Comp., 435. 52. Leitzmann, M.F., M.J. Stampfer, D.S. Michaud, K. Augustsson, G.C. Colditz, W.C. Willett, E.L. Giovannucci, 2004. Dietary intake of n-3 and n6 fatty acids and the risk of prostate cancer. Am J Clin Nutr., 80(1): 204-16. 53. Lewis, J.E., L.A. Nickell, L.U. Thompson, J.P. Szalai, A. Kiss, J.R. Hilditch, 2006. A randomized controlled trial of the effect of dietary soy and flaxseed muffins on quality of life and hot flashes during menopause. Menopause, 13(4): 631-42. 54. Lockwood, K., S. Moesgaard, T. Hanioka, K. Folkers, 1994. Apparent partial remission of breast cancer in 'high risk' patients supplemented with nutritional antioxidants, essential fatty acids, and coenzyme Q10. Mol Aspects Med., 15Suppl: s231-s240. 55. Lorenz-Meyer, H., P. Bauer, C. Nicolay, B. Schulz, J. Purrmann, W.E. Fleig, et al., 1996. Omega-3 fatty acids and low carbohydrate diet for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease. A randomized controlled multicenter trial. Study Group Members (German Crohn's Disease Study Group). Scan J Gastroenterol., 31(8): 778-785. 56. Lucas, E.A., R.D. Wild, L.J. Hammond, D.A. Khalil, S. Juma, B.P. Daggy, B.J. Stoecker, B.H. Arjmandi, 2002. Flaxseed improves lipid profile without altering biomarkers of bone metabolism in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 87(4): 1527-32. 57. Mandasescu, S., V. Mocanu, A.M. Dascalita, R. Haliga, I. Nestian, P.A. Stitt, V. Luca, 2005. Flaxseed supplementation in hyperlipidemic patients. Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi, 109(3): 502-6. 58. Meydani, M., 2000. Omega-3 fatty acids alter soluble markers of endothelial function in coronary heart disease patients. Nutr Rev., 58(2 pt 1): 56-59. 59. Moyad, M., 1999. Soy, disease prevention, and prostate cancer. Sem Urol Oncol., 17(2): 97-102. 60. Mozaffarian, D., 2005. Does alpha-linolenic acid intake reduce the risk of coronary heart disease? A review of the evidence.Altern Ther Health Med., 11(3): 24-30, quiz 31, 79. 61. Nestel, P.J., S.E. Pomeroy, T. Sasahara, et al.,1997. Arterial compliance in obese subjects is improved with dietary plant n-3 fatty acid from flaxseed oil despite increased LDL oxidizability. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol., 17(6): 11631170. 62. Newcomer, L.M., I.B. King, K.G. Wicklund, J.L. Stanford, 2001. The association of fatty acids with prostate cancer risk. Prostate, 47(4): 262268. Adv. Environ. Biol., 5(6): 1380-1392, 2011 63. Peet, M., J.D. Laugharne, J. Mellor, et al., 1996. Essential fatty acid deficiency in erythrocyte membranes from chronic schizophrenic patients, and the clinical effects of dietary supplementation. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 55(1-2): 71-75. 64. Prasad, K., 1999. Reduction of serum cholesterol and hypercholesterolemic atherosclerosis in rabbits by secoisolariciresinol diglucoside isolated from flaxseed. Circulation, 99(10): 13551362. 65. Prasad, K., 1997. Dietary flaxseed in prevention of hypercholesterolemic atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis, 132(1): 69-76. 66. Prisco, D., R. Paniccia, B. Bandinelli, et al., 1998. Effect of medium term supplementation with a moderate dose of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid on blood pressure in mild hypertensive patients. Thromb Res., 91: 105-112. 67. Pruthi, S. et al., 2007. Pilot evaluation of flaxseed for the management of hot flashes. J Soc Integr Oncol., 5(3): 106-12. 68. Rose, D.P., J.M. Connolly, M. Coleman, 1996. Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on the progression of metastases after the surgical excision of human breast cancer cell solid tumors growing in nude mice. Clin Can Res., 2: 1751-1756. 69. Schwab, U.S., C. Callaway J., Erkkila A.T., Gynther J., M.I. Uusitupa, T. Jarvinen, 2006. Effects of hempseed and flaxseed oils on the profile of serum lipids, serum total and lipoprotein lipid concentrations and haemostatic factors. Eur J Nutr., 45(8): 470-7. 70. Seddon, J.M., B. Rosner, R.D. Sperduto, L. Yannuzzi, J.A. Haller, N.P. Blair, W. Willett, 2001. Dietary fat and risk for advanced agerelated macular degeneration. Arch Opthalmol., 119(8): 1191-1199. 71. Serraino, M., L,Y. Thompson, 1992. Flaxseed supplementation and early markers of colon carcinogenesis. Cancer Lett., 63(2): 159-165. 72. Simopoulos, A.P., 1999. Essential fatty acids in health and chronic disease. Am J Clin Nutr., 70(30 Suppl): 560S-569S. 73. Simopoulos, A.P., 2000. Human requirement for N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Poult Sci., 79(7): 961-970. 74. Simon, J.A., Y.H. Chen and S. Bent, 2009. The relation of alpha-linolenic acid to the risk of prostate cancer: a systematic review and metaanalysis.. Am J Clin Nutr., 89(5): 1558S-1564S. (Abstract). 1392 75. Soyland, E., J. Funk, G. Rajka, M. Sandberg, P. Thune, L. Ruistad, et al., 1993. Effect of dietary supplementation with very-long chain n-3 fatty acids in patients with psoriasis. NEJM., 328(25): 1812-1816. 76. Steven, D., N.M.D. Ehrlich,, Private practice specializing in complementary and alternative medicine, Phoenix, AZ. Review provided by Veri Med Healthcare Network. 77. Stuglin, C., K. Prasad, 2005. Effect of flaxseed consumption on blood pressure, serum lipids, hemopoietic system and liver and kidney enzymes in healthy humans. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther., 10(1): 23-7. 78. Sung, M.K., M. Lautens, L.U. Thompson, 1998. Mammalian lignans inhibit growth of estrogenindependent human colon tumor cells. Anticancer Research, 18(3A): 1405-1408. 79. Valentzis, L.S., M.M. Cantwell, C. Cardwell, et at., 2009. Lignans and breast cancer risk in preand post-menopausal women: meta-analyses of observational studies.. Br J Cancer, 100(9): 1492-8. (Full text). 80. von Schacky, C., P. Angere, W. Kothny, K. Theisen, H. Mudra, 1999. The effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on coronary atherosclerosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med., 130: 554-562. 81. Voskuil, D.W., E.J.M. Feskens, M.B. Katan, D. Kromhout, 1996. Intake and sources of alphalinolenic acid in Dutch elderly men. Euro J Clin Nutr., 50(12): 784-787. 82. Yan, L., 1998. Dietary flaxseed supplementation and experimental metastasis of melanoma cells in mice. Cancer Letters, 124: 181-186. 83. Zambón, D., J. Sabate, S. Munoz, et al., 2000. Substituting walnuts for monounsaturated fat improves the serum lipid profile of hypercholesterolemic men and women. Ann Intern Med., 132: 538-546. 84. Zhang, W., X. Wang, Y. Liu, H. Tian, B. Flickinger, M.W. Empie, S.Z. Sun, 2008. Dietary flaxseed lignan extract lowers plasma cholesterol and glucose concentration in hypercholesterolaemic subjects. Br J Nutr., 99(6): 1301-9.