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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles
BOLIVIA
by
Dr. Raúl R. Vera
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© FAO 2006
3
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 5
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 6
3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 7
Altiplano
8
Yungas and other valleys
8
Eastern lowlands
8
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Altiplano
9
9
Yungas and other valleys
10
Eastern lowlands
10
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE 11
Altiplano
11
Yungas and other valleys
13
Eastern lowlands
13
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE RESOURCES
14
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS
15
8. REFERENCES 15
9. CONTACTS 16
10. AUTHOR
18
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
5
1. INTRODUCTION
Bolivia is a landlocked South American
country of 1 098 581 km2 in size (see
Figure 1). Its population amounts to
6 420 792 inhabitants according to INE
(1992), with 8 329 000 estimated for 2000
(CEPAL, 1999) and with a growth rate of
2.33% (according to the World Factbook
the July 2006 population estimate was
8 989 870 with a growth rate of 1.45%).
The urban population is 65% of the total
(2000 estimate) growing at a rate of
1.8%, versus 0.5% rural (CEPAL, 1999).
Approximately 55% of the population
are believed to be of “pure” indigenous
Indian descent, 25-30% mestizo and 15%
European.
Land uses include 33% agricultural,
of which 5% is arable, 93% pastures,
and a negligible percentage is irrigated
(Table 1). Bolivia is divided by two
parallel Andean ranges or cordilleras,
on a roughly north–south axis, into
three distinct ecozones: a vast semi-arid
Altiplano plateau between the western Figure 1. Map of main topographic characteristics of
range (Cordillera Occidental) and the Bolivia
eastern range (Cordillera Oriental), with
Lake Titicaca on its northern end; semi-tropical Yungas and temperate valleys of the Cordillera Oriental;
and eastern lowlands (Oriente), including the semi-arid Chaco.
Agriculture is an extremely important sector, with 60% of farmers in the highlands and 20% in
relatively fertile valleys. The arable land was estimated at 2.3 ha per person in 1993 (Dirven, 1999). Of
the total area, 51% (mainly in the eastern lowlands and northeastern flanks of the Cordillera Oriental)
is covered by forest. Agriculture accounted for 23% of GDP in 1987. It employed about half (46%) of
the official labour force in 1986 and accounted for only 15% of total exports in the late 1980s. Coca
growing, a long standing customary crop, has become a major social problem.
Bolivia has the second largest population of South American camelids after Peru, and a large
number of sheep and cattle (Table 2). The lowland Departments of Beni, Santa Cruz and Pando account
for 54.2% of the ruminant stock, the Altiplano Departments of La Paz, Oruro and Potosí have 26%,
and the remaining 19.8% is found in the inter-andean Departments of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca and
Tarica. Despite a growing production of beef and milk (Table 2) the country is a net importer of both
commodities (Table 3), although for beef and veal by 2003 there were more exports and for milk
products the gap was closing.
Land tenure across the country varies very greatly. In the eastern lowlands properties tend to be
large and the sector is dominated by large farms and ranches, whereas small farmers predominate in the
valleys and foothills. Land tenure patterns in the highlands are complex, but communal areas and very
small farms tend to predominate as described in section 4 in relation to ruminant production systems.
Table 1. Land resources of Bolivia, 1 000 ha
Land area
108 438
Agricultural
area
36 034
Arable
area
1 974
Source: FAO databases, estimates for 1998.
Permanent
crops
229
Permanent
pastures
33 831
Arable, %
agricultural
5.5
Agricultural land
area, %
33.2
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
6
Table 2. Bolivia: statistics for livestock numbers, meat and milk production for the period 1996–2005
Years
Stocks/Products
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Cattle (,000)
6 118
6 238
6 387
6 556
6 725
6 457
6 576
6 680
6 822
6 822
Sheep (, 000)
8 039
8 232
8 409
8 575
8 752
8 902
8 902
8 596
8 550
8 550
Goats (,000)
1 500
1 496
1 496
1 500
1 500
1 500
1 501
1 501
1 501
1 501
Other camelids (,000)
1 838
1 850
1 850
1 900
1 900
1 900
1 900
1 900
1 900
1 900
Beef and veal (Mt) (,000)
143.2
147.3
150.2
155.3
159.8
160.9
164.6
168.2
172.0
172.0
Goat meat (Mt) (,000)
Sheep: mutton and lamb
(Mt) (,000)
Meat of other camelids
(Mt) (,000)
Cow mil, fresh (Mt)(,000)
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.8
14.2
14.6
14.8
15.3
15.7
16.3
16.9
17.6
18.0
18.0
2.4
2.4
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.8
3.0
3.0
3.0
195.1
202.2
191.1
230.7
231.5
170.0
291.0
240.0
233.7
233.7
Source: FAO databases 2006.
Table 3. Bolivia: Imports and exports of beef and veal, milk, and wool, metric tons
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Beef and veal
(,000)
Imports
0.1
0.7
1.2
0.2
0.3
0.8
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
Exports
0.5
0.4
0.1
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.6
Milk equivalent
(,000)
Imports
41.9
61.0
58,5
73.4
57.4
68.0
61.2
54.8
57.9
37.9
Exports
4.7
1.3
3.4
4.4
4.6
19.4
21.2
24.1
31.1
24.8
Wool, greasy
Imports
3
3
0
1
1
10
11
18
0
0
Exports
89
356
226
152
60
203
153
156
101
15
Imports
0
1
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
Exports
12
12
35
8
3
0
0
8
8
1
Wool, scoured
Source: FAO databases 2006.
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY
A brief mention of the main topographic features was made above. The Andes define the country’s three
geographic zones: the mountains and Altiplano in the west, the semi-tropical Yungas and temperate valleys
of the eastern mountain slopes, and the tropical lowlands or plains (llanos) of the eastern lowlands, or
Oriente. The Andes run in two great parallel ranges or cordilleras. The western range (Cordillera Occidental)
runs along the Peruvian and Chilean borders. The eastern range (Cordillera Oriental) is a broad and towering
system of mountains stretching from Peru to Argentina. Between the two ranges lies the Altiplano, a plateau
1 100 km long and 120 to 160 km wide; the Bolivian portion of the Altiplano is 800 km long.
Bolivian soils are extremely varied and reflect the variable topography and slopes of the landscape.
Table 4 shows some of the characteristics of soils in a few of the “land systems” identified by Cochrane
et al. (1985) in Bolivia. It is
Table 4. Soil characteristics in a number of Bolivian land system
clear from the data quoted
pH
OM
P
Ca
Mg
K
that the alluvial soils of the
%
ppm meq % meq % meq %
agricultural region closest to
Sta. Cruz, well drained
7.2 (usually
1.6
4.9
13.2
0.7
0.20
the city of Santa Cruz, in
lowlands, 0–20 cm (1)
contain
moderate Na
the Bolivian lowlands, are
concentrations)
relatively most fertile despite
Beni, poorly drained
5.2
n.a.
5.0
3.3
2.2
0.46
their low organic matter conlowlands 3–12 cm (2)
tent . The latter are the soils
Cochabamba,
4.7
n.a.
10
n.a.
0.9
0.1
interandean region,
that have supported the rapid
alluvial soil, 1–15 cm (2)
expansion of soybeans and,
La Paz, highlands,
5.5
n.a.
7
0.9
1.0
0.2
to a lesser degree, sown trop5–12 cm (2)
ical grasses, in that region.
(1) Martínez (1992). (2) Cochrane et al. (1985). n.a. = not available
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
7
3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES
Although Bolivia lies entirely within the tropics, climatic conditions vary widely, from tropical in the
lowlands to polar in the highest parts of the Andes. Temperatures depend on elevation and show little
seasonal variation. In most places rainfall is heaviest in summer, and yearly amounts tend to decrease from
north to south. Northern lowland areas have a tropical wet climate with year-round high temperatures,
high humidity and heavy rainfall. Daytime highs average above 27 0C all year round in most locations.
Rain often falls as brief thunderstorms, sometimes accompanied by strong winds and hail.
Central lowland areas have a tropical wet and dry climate. From October through April, northeast
trade winds predominate and the weather is hot, humid and rainy (Figure 2) From May through
September, however, dry southeast trade
winds take control and precipitation is
minimal. During this season clear days
and cloudless nights allow higher daily
maximums and lower nightly minimums
than during the rainy season. Occasional
strong winds from the south, called
surazos, reach the region in winter and
bring low temperatures for several days.
The Chaco has a semi-tropical, semiarid climate with extreme temperatures.
Northeasterly winds bring rain and hot
humid conditions only from January
Figure 2. Monthly rainfall and temperature in Sta. Cruz,
through March; the other months are dry eastern lowlands of Bolivia
with hot days and cool nights. Record
temperatures reach 47 0C.
Temperatures and rainfall in mountain areas vary considerably. The
Yungas, where the moist northeast trade
winds are pushed up by the mountains,
is the cloudiest, most humid and rainiest
area, receiving up to 1 520 mm annually.
Sheltered valleys and basins throughout
the Cordillera Oriental have mild temperatures and moderate rainfall, averaging from 640 to 760 mm (Figure 3). Figure 3. Mean monthly temperature and rainfall,
Temperature drops with increasing Cochabamba, Andean valleys
elevation, however. Snowfall is possible
above 2 000 m and the permanent snow
line is at 4 600 m. Areas over 5 500 m
have a polar climate. The Cordillera
Occidental is a high desert with cold,
windswept peaks. The Altiplano, which
also is swept by strong, cold winds, has
an arid, chilly climate, with sharp differences in daily temperature and decreasing amounts of rainfall from north to
south (Figure 4). Average highs during
the day range from 15 °C to 20 °C, but
in the summer tropical sun, temperatures may exceed 27 °C. After nightfall,
however, temperatures drop rapidly to
Figure 4. Mean monthly rainfal and temperature,
just above freezing. Lake Titicaca exerts
La Paz, Bolivian highlands
8
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
a moderating influence but, even on its shores, frosts occur in almost every month, and snow is not
uncommon.
Agro-ecological zones are discussed below, in relation to topography.
Altiplano
The Peruvian-Bolivian Altiplano is a plateau 1 100 km long by 120–160 km wide that runs between the
cordilleras at an average altitude of 4 000 m (Quiroga, 1992).The Bolivian portion is 800 km long, with
a total area of 123 000 km2 and contains most of the Departments of La Paz (capital city of Bolivia),
Oruro and Potosí. Although the Altiplano covers only 12% of Bolivia’s land area, it has 35% of its
population, including 42% of the urban population and 24% of the rural inhabitants. The Altiplano is a
high altitude basin, which includes a plain known as Puna, and a series of mountain ridges. It is covered
with sediments of disappeared lakes, partially dried lakes (e.g. the Titicaca) and residues of other large,
salty, lakes. Humidity in the Altiplano decreases from north to south, and salinity of the existing lakes
increases in the same direction. The geology of the region, and the existence of various basins within the
Altiplano, explain its variability; interested readers will find a detailed ecological description in Quiroga
(1992) among others.
Yungas and other valleys
Temperate and subtropical valleys abound throughout the Andean region. The northeastern flank of the
Cordillera Real is known as the Yungas, from the Aymara word meaning “warm valleys.” This land is
among the most fertile in Bolivia, but poor access has hindered its agricultural development.
The eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central descend gradually in a series of complex north–south
ranges and hills. Rivers draining to the east have cut long narrow valleys; these valleys and the basins
between the ranges are favourable areas for crops and settlement. Rich alluvial soils fill the low areas,
but erosion has followed the removal of vegetation in some places. The valley floors range from 2 000 to
3 000 m above sea level and this lower elevation means milder temperatures than those of the Altiplano.
Two of Bolivia’s most important cities, Sucre and Cochabamba, are located in basins in this region.
The valleys cover 15% of the Bolivian territory, and have 24% and 36% of the urban and rural
population of the country, respectively. Farms in the valleys tend to be very small, frequently under one
hectare each. The valleys generally have Mediterranean climates, with rainfall concentrated in a few
months and ranging between 200 and 600 mm, and have traditionally been dominated by very small
landowners (“minifundistas”). Strong farmers’ associations have developed since the 1980s, and offer
a variety of services (information, inputs, milk marketing, training and education) to their members.
Crops, roots, fruits, vegetables and sown forages are grown and, if irrigation is available, more than
one cropping season is feasible. Nevertheless, intensive utilization of land in small farms has led to
widespread erosion.
Eastern lowlands
The eastern lowlands include all of Bolivia north and east of the Andes. They represent 63% of the
Bolivian territory and have 32% and 18% of the urban and rural population, respectively. Thus, although
comprising two-thirds of the national territory, the region is sparsely populated and until the late 1980s,
it played a minor role in the economy. Differences in topography and climate separate the lowlands into
three areas. The flat northern area, made up of Beni and Pando departments and the northern part of
Cochabamba Department consists of tropical savannahs and rainforest. Mean altitude in Beni is 155 m,
mean temperature is 27 °C (9–40 °C), and average rainfall is 1 800 mm distributed between November
and May. Because much of the topsoil is underlain by a clay hardpan, drainage is poor, and heavy rain
periodically converts vast parts of the region into swamp. Heavy clay soils have a pH of 5.1 on average.
The central area, comprising the northern half of Santa Cruz Department, has gently rolling hills and
a drier climate than the north. Forests alternate with savannah and much of the land has been cleared
for cultivation, mainly for soybean. Santa Cruz, the largest city in the lowlands, is here, as are most of
Bolivia’s petroleum and natural gas reserves. The southeastern part of the lowlands is a continuation of
the Chaco of Paraguay. Virtually rainless for nine months of the year, this area becomes a swamp for the
three months of heavy rains. The extreme variation in rainfall supports only thorny scrub vegetation and
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
9
cattle grazing, although recent discoveries of natural gas and petroleum near the foothills of the Andes
have attracted some settlers to the region.
Most of Bolivia’s important rivers are in the water-rich northern parts of the lowlands, particularly in
the Alto Beni (Upper Beni), where the land is suitable for crops such as coffee and cacao. The northern
lowlands are drained by wide rivers, including the Mamoré, Beni, and Madre de Dios, all of which
flow northward into the Madeira River in Brazil and eventually into the Amazon. On the contrary, the
southern rivers are shallow and sandy, and constitute part of the Paraná River basin.
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Altiplano
Livestock systems in the highlands include pastoral and agropastoral systems. Although animals are
not necessarily the main source of family income, their role is crucial to survival, since it is a far less
risky enterprise than cropping and other agricultural activities (Iñiguez, 1996). Throughout the Altiplano
cattle, and in particular oxen, are extremely important for draught. They are generally used until 8–9
years of age after which they are slaughtered and their meat sold in local markets. It is only in the
northern area, near the Titicaca lake and under the influence of the large urban market of La Paz, that
small unsophisticated dairies can be found. These farms supplement milk produced by large and modern
peri-urban dairies in the vicinity of the city.
Sheep are kept in the Altiplano for meat and wool. Originally introduced by the Spaniards, breeds
such as Merino, Churra, Manchega and some others are widespread. In 1972 it was estimated (Quiroga,
1992) that 36% of the highland sheep population was in the Northern Altiplano, 57% in the Central
region and 7% in the Southern Altiplano. Sheep raising is an extremely important subsistence activity
for large numbers of peasants (Quiroga, 1992) since it provides clothing material, meat, disposable
income and barter. Also, and together with camelids, they are used to graze crop stubbles in an attempt to
maintain soil fertility. Nevertheless, wool yields are very low (under 1 kg/head) and quality is deficient
by international standards.
Raising camelids is an integral part of the Andean culture and tradition. Llamas, alpacas and vicuñas
provide efficient pack animals, meat, wool and fibre, leather, manure and fuel (dung). Their habitat is
generally above 3 800 m, and alpacas in particular tend to be concentrated in areas well endowed with
bofedales (see Table 5 for characteristics). During the 1990s an effort was made by Andean countries
to promote clothing and handcrafted garments made of camelids’ wool or fibres in niche international
marks thus adding value to these native animals and increasing peasants’ income. How successful this
initiative will be remains to be seen.
Two general livestock systems can be identified in the Altiplano (Iñiguez, 1996):
• Pastoral system, that predominates where crops are not feasible and where rainfall is under 300
mm per year. The system is based on the use of llamas, alpacas and sheep: alpacas are generally
confined to the more humid niches, whereas llamas are found in the more marginal environments.
Criollo sheep overlap with both camelids, and provide the bulk of meat eaten by households;
• Agropastoral systems are better suited for crop production and are found in areas with 350–600
mm rainfall. Traditional Andean crops and barley are grown, as well as small areas of irrigated
Table 5. Main grazing land types of Bolivia and their average dry matter yield
Altiplano
Altitude, m
Type of vegetation
‘000 km
Andean valleys
>3 000
Lowland pastures
500-3 000
< 500
Range
Stubbles
Grasslands
Stubbles
Savannah and Chaco
Stubbles
5 825
201 924
15 030
107 369
4 263
397 888
Percent of country
18.4
1.4
9.7
0.3
36.3
0.5
Average DM yield,
kg/ha/year
< 800
< 400
400–1 000
400–800
1 000–2 500
500–1 000
2
Source: Alzérreca, 1985.
10
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
lucerne (Medicago sativa). The latter as well as crop stubbles and residues are fed to cattle and
sheep, which also have access to communal ranges.
Yungas and other valleys
Two grassland-based ruminant systems predominate (Iñiguez, 1996).
Intensive to semi-intensive Holstein-based dairy production is common in valleys near large urban
centres, and in particular near the city of Cochabamba. Small producers, some landless, predominate.
Those with little or no land rent paddocks and also graze animals along roads and other open areas.
Medium to large dairies rely on lucerne and maize, the latter conserved mainly as silage. Concentrate
supplementation is common. On-farm milk yields among medium and large producers average 13 kg
milk/day/cow, but the overall average for the Cochabamba area is closer to half that amount. As elsewhere
in subtropical and tropical Latin America, animal breeding and improvement of the genetic potential of
animals have advanced more rapidly than improvements in feeding strategies and grassland management.
Valleys lacking ready access to urban centres are characterized by smallholder agropastoral systems.
Agriculture, frequently based on two crops per year, is the main land use. Cattle and/or sheep and
goats are grazed on open lands in daytime and housed at night. They are also supplemented with crop
stubbles and residues, such as maize stover, particularly during the long dry season. As in the Altiplano,
ruminants are valued for their manure, and are widely used for draught. Cattle and sheep tend to be
crosses of European breeds with Criollo.
Eastern lowlands
Grassland-based ruminant production systems in the lowlands vary a great deal depending upon the type
of vegetation, i.e. seasonally-flooded tropical savannahs, the semi-arid Chaco, or the increasingly croporiented area east of Santa Cruz.
Extensive beef production is practically the only feasible ruminant production system in the
seasonally-flooded savannahs of the Beni, Pando Departments and areas of Santa Cruz farthest away
from roads and urban centres. Land tenure in the region is characterized by large privately-owned
ranches, frequently with several thousand hectares each. Medium ranches range between 2 000 and
4 000 ha. The three Departments account for 70% of the Bolivian cattle herd.
The tropical savannahs of Beni are subject to alternate flood and drought. The rainy season is between
late September and late April (similar to what occurs in the Brazilian areas east of the border); rivers
carrying water from the Andes towards the Amazon basin flood two-thirds of the area by December and
until August. During this period, the Zebu (Nellore) and Zebu x Criollo cattle concentrate on portions of the
paddocks that remain a few centimetres above water level (“alturas” and “semi-alturas”, Tables 5 and 7);
similar grazing systems are found in poorly drained savannah areas of Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela.
Carrying capacity of the savannahs ranges between 3 and 8 ha/head. These systems are subject to very
minimal management and are constrained by the difficult accessibility of most paddocks during the rainy
season. Therefore all animal categories (cows, heifers, calves, bulls and steers) generally run together and
are harvested once or twice a year. In some remote areas, animals may be slaughtered on-farm and the
carcasses flown to urban centres, but three important all-weather roads are under construction.
There are 50 slaughter plants, and these are estimated to provide half of the beef consumed in Bolivia.
Not unexpectedly, yields, extraction rates and reproductive performance are low, with breeding cows
typically having calving intervals of two years. According to the Fondo Ganadero del Beni, carcasses
of three-year-old steers weigh 180 kg; nevertheless, technologically advanced ranches reach yields of
200–215 kg carcass weight (Bauer, 1993 cited by Morales and Abasto, 1999). Numerous diseases are
endemic, and mineral deficiencies are common. In the flooded savannahs, capybara, Hydrochoerus
hydrochoeris (the world’s largest rodent, native to South America) is very widely distributed and hunted
for its meat and hide. No systematic efforts to research joint wildlife-cattle management have been made,
despite positive experiences in comparable areas of Venezuela.
The Department of Santa Cruz has 370 621 km2 and represents a third of the Bolivian land area. Without
doubt, it has the highest agricultural potential of the country. East of the city of Santa Cruz, capital city of
the Santa Cruz Department, the land is flat, soils tend to be alluvial as a consequence of the runoff from
the Andes, and the original vegetation was forest. The region is presently largely deforested and since the
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
11
1980s has experienced a dramatic expansion of intensive soybean-based cropping, following and adapting
much of the technology employed in the Brazilian Cerrados, on the other side of the border. Similarly,
there has been a rapid and unquantified expansion of sown tropical pastures, again under the influence of
Brazilian practices. Pastures are dominated by Brachiaria decumbens and Brachiaria brizantha, with a
minor contribution of other species such as B. humidicola, Panicum maximum and others.
There are two cattle-based production systems. Near to urban centres “dual-purpose” production
systems are common among small and medium ranchers. These are characterized by crossbred cows
(crosses of Zebu with Criollo, Brown Swiss or Holstein) that are milked once daily with their calf at
foot to allow milk let down (Patterson et al., 1981). Typical saleable milk yields range between 2 and
6 kg milk/day/cow, frequently in extended lactations of over 280 days and fed exclusively on low-input
pastures, supplemented with mineral mixtures and with some cut-and-carry forage (elephant grass or
sugar cane) during the dry season. In regions further from urban centres and roads, properties tend to be
larger, 300–1 500 ha on average, and generally combine crops such as soybean and cereals with cow-calf
and beef fattening operations. Crop and cattle activities are seldom integrated in a planned manner so well
integrated crop–livestock systems are scarce although the potential is reputedly high (Martínez, 1999).
Extensive beef production systems also characterize the semi-arid tropics of Bolivia, part of the large Chaco
ecosystem that extends over Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Brazil, as indicated in Tables 5 and 6. The area
tends to be hot and combines extensive grassy fields with shrubs and low thorny trees. Beef breeding ranches
mostly have Criollo cattle, well adapted to climate and vegetation. The grass stratum, seasonally supplemented
by browsing shrubs and trees, is the only forage. Beef productivity is extremely low as a consequence of the
low carrying capacity of the area and minimal management. Despite very large ecological differences from the
savannah region the constraints of these systems are very similar (Iñiguez, 1996).
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE
The vegetation of Bolivia has been classified from different viewpoints but there is no generally agreed
classification of its rangelands. Nevertheless, the classifications drawn by Cochrane (1973) and by
Alzérreca (1992) show overall agreement and are used here. Complementary ecological maps have been
presented by Quiroga (1992).
The estimated area of grazing lands, including some relatively marginal areas, amounts to 707 200
km2 or 64% of the Bolivian territory (Alzérreca, 1985) distributed between the three physiographic
regions of the country (Table 5) that include, in a west–east direction, the Altiplano or Andes Highlands,
the Andean valleys and the eastern lowlands (Figure 1). These three regions encompass a high degree
of variability and they can usefully be subdivided for ruminant production into eight main ecological
regions, summarized in Table 6 (Alzérreca, 1985; Quiroga 1992). Within each region, different plant
communities can be found, the most important of which are described briefly in Table 7, which includes
approximate estimates of current dry matter yields. Nevertheless, the latter vary greatly with rainfall and,
as can be appreciated in Table 8, the Northern Altiplano has yields substantially above the average.
Altiplano
The natural vegetation is dominated by semi-arid Puna formations characterized by grasses, and less
frequently shrubs, of low nutritive value. Soils tend to be low in N and P, high in NaCl, and moderate
to low organic matter (Baldivia, 1998). Altiplano soils are affected by erosion to various degrees and
the existing estimates of the area affected range between 30 and 80%, depending on the severity of the
process. In fact, in some areas sand dunes have evolved through soil overuse (Baldivia, 1998) The erratic
rainfall ranges between 300 and 600 mm per year, and is supplemented by scarce irrigation when water
is available.
Communal crop and grazing lands are interspersed with privately-owned farms and all of them are
grazed by mixtures of camelids (llamas and alpacas), sheep and cattle in varying proportions depending
upon the location and altitude. As a consequence of pasture degradation the carrying capacity has decreased
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
12
Table 6. Main ecological regions of Bolivia for ruminant production
Eco-region
Subhumid Arid-semi- Arid-semi- Subhumid
SemiSubhumid
Puna (N arid Puna arid high
high
arid to
lowland
Altiplano)
(Central
Puna
Puna (E
subhumid
and
Altiplano)
(S & W
Altiplano)
valleys
Andean
Altiplano)
forests
Uses
Seasonally
flooded
savannah
6–10
8–11
6–9
7–12
14–22
20–22
26–30
27
520–650
350
50–280
450–1 200
310–1 200
700–1 200
700–800
1 800
3 800–4 100 3 000–4 000 3 900–5 000 3 000–5 000 1 500–3 000 500–1 600
Temperature, °C
Rainfall, mm
Altitude, m
Semi-arid
forest
Chaco
1
300–500
180–250
Crops
Sheep
Cattle
Sheep
Camelids
Crops
Cattle
Camelids
Sheep
Cattle
Camelids
Sheep
Cattle
Goats
Crops
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Horses
Crops
Cattle
Horses
Goats
Crops
Cattle
Goats
Horses
Cattle
Horses
5–8
7–21
20–41
7–21
5–28
4–13
6–30
3–8
Carrying capacity,
ha/AU/year
In order of decreasing relative importance
Source, Alzérreca, 1985.
1
Table 7. Plant communities and main genera and species found in eight important ecological regions
for ruminant production
Eco-region
Plant community (local
names)
Characteristic genera and species
Subhumid Puna (N
Altiplano)
Bofedal
Distichlis humilis, Carex sp., Oxychloe andina, Calamagrostis spp.
Chilliguares (=Chillihuares)
Festuca dolichophylla, Lachemilla spp., Trifolium amabile
Totoral
Scirpus, Juncus
Bofedal
Oxychloe andina, others above
Arid-semi-arid Puna
(Central Altiplano)
Pajonal
Festuca ortophylla, Stipa spp., Calamagrostis spp.
Pajonal de Ichu
Stipa ichu, Stipa sp., Erodium cicutarium, Aristida sp.
Chilliguares
Festuca dolichophylla
Tolar (=Tholar)
Parastrephia lepidophylla, Baccharis microphylla, Adesmia spp.
Tolar-pajonal
Parastrephia lepidophylla, Baccharis, Festuca, Stipa
Gramadal
Distichlis humilis, Muhlenbergia fastigiata, M. peruviana
Arbustal de Cauchi
Suaeda fruticosa, Atriplex cristata
Bofedal
Oxychloe andina, Ranunculus sp.
Arid-semi-arid high
Puna (S & W Altiplano)
Tolar
Psila boliviensis, Fabiana densa
Gramadal
Distichlis, Werneria
Matorral de polylepis
Polylepis tomentella, P. tarapacana, Stipa ichu, Stipa sp.
Pajonal
Stipa sp., Festuca sp.
Bofedal
Distichlis, Plantago
Pajonal de ladera
Festuca, Stipa, Paspalum
Gramadal
Geranium, Werneria
Subhumid high Puna
(E Altiplano)
Arbustales de satureja
Satureja, Chuquiraga
Semi-arid to subhumid
valleys
Churquiales
Acacia, Aristida, Bouteloua
Subhumid, lowland
and Andean forests
Matorral
Acacia, Prosopis, Desmodium, Andropogon
Pajonal
Chloris, Paspalum, Leptochloa
Semi-arid forest,
Chaco
Matorral
Rupretchia, Setaria, Bromelia,
Sabana rasa
Aristida, Cassia, Chloris
Sabana arbolada
Aristida, Mimosa, Aspidosperma
Bajios
Leersia hexandra, Luziola peruviana, Paspalum acuminatum,
Eleocharis acutangula
Curiches
Hymenachne amplexicaulis, Leersia hexandra, Cyperus giganteus,
Eichornia azurea
Sartamejales
Paspalum, Eleusine
Alturas
Sporobolus indicus, Paspalum plicatulum, Eleusine tristachya,
Axonopus compressus, Desmodium spp., Centrosema spp.
Semi-alturas
Paspalum virgatum, P. stellatum, Panicum laxum, Erichloa punctata
Seasonally flooded
savannah
Sources: Alzérreca, 1985, 1992; Beck, 1988 cited by Morales and Abasto, 1999; Quiroga, 1992.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
13
to 1.5 ha/sheep, as opposed to 1 ha/sheep of well Table 8. Expected dry matter yields (tonnes/
ha/year) of different forages under different
managed Puna vegetation. Crops (potatoes, quinua management scenarios in the northern Altiplano
[Chenopodium quinoa], various beans and others) of Bolivia
tend to be concentrated in small areas, sometimes Species or plant
Current
Excellent
management management
including small parcels sown to lucerne and various community
conditions
introduced forage grasses (Baldivia, 1998).
Medicago sativa
2–3
7–10
The climax vegetation of the Altiplano or Puna
Phalaris sp. + M. sativa
3–4
8
is considered to include the following species
Bofedal
2.5
n.d.
(Quiroga, 1992): Stipa ichu, Calamagrostis spp.,
2
n.d.
Nasella, sp., Baccharis incarum, Baccharis Tolar
(n.d.
no
data)
boliviensis and Parastrephia lepidophylla
Source: Estrada, Paladines and Quiros, 1998.
Nevertheless, the distribution of these and other
species is influenced by pedological variables. Table 9. Range of yields (tonnes DM/ha/year)
Examples of this variability and the corresponding produced by forage cereals under experimental
indicator species include (Quiroga, 1992; Alzérreca, conditions in two ecological regions of the
Bolivian Altiplano
1985, 1992):
Crop
Semi-humid, 560 mm Semi-arid, 350 mm
• Soils of humid plains: Muhlenbergia fastigia,
Barley
7–8
2–4
Haffmannseggia sp. Bouteloua simplex
Oats
4–8
1–2.5
• Dry, saline plains: Anthobryum triandrum,
Triticale
8–9
2.5–3.5
Suaeda fruticosa
• Dry, sandy soils: Junellia seriphiodes, Modified from Alzérreca, 1992.
Lampaya medicinalis
• Stony, dry soils: Fabiana densa, Tetraglochin cristatum, Adesmia spp.
• Stony, humid plains: Psila boliviensis
• Saline soils: Distichlis humilis
• Humid soils next to water streams: Festuca dolichophylla
• River and lake borders: Parastrephia phylicaeformis
Regardless of location, the native pastures of the Altiplano are of low nutritive value, have low
carrying capacity and only the native camelids are truly adapted and thrive. Where climatic conditions
and availability of supplementary water permit, sown species are established to supplement the diet
of cattle and sheep. This is particularly the case of the northern Altiplano, in the area of influence of
the Titicaca lake, where introduced species such as lucerne (Medicago sativa), tall fescue (Festuca
arundinacea), cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata), Arrhenatherum elatius, Agroyron elongatum and Phleum
pratense are relatively common. In the central and southern Altiplano, lucerne and weeping lovegrass
(Eragrostis curvula) are the only forages of any significance. In both regions, cereals such as barley and
oats are grown for cattle feeding, and experimental yields are shown in Table 9.
Yungas and other valleys
The original vegetation of the valleys was forest, the majority of which has disappeared or been degraded through human intervention. In consequence, pastures in the region are based on sown grasses and,
to a much smaller extent, naturalized introduced species. Both were referred to in section 4, as related
to the description of ruminant production systems.
Eastern lowlands
The tropical savannahs of Beni are subject to alternate flood and drought. The rainy season extends
between late September and late April (similar to what occurs in the Brazilian areas East of the border);
rivers carrying water from the Andes towards the Amazon basin flood two-thirds of the area by December,
and until August. During this period, the Zebu (Nellore) and Zebu x Criollo cattle concentrate on portions
of the paddocks that remain a few centimetres above water level (“alturas” and “semi-alturas”, Tables
7 and 10); similar grazing systems are found in poorly drained savanna areas of Brazil, Colombia and
Venezuela. Carrying capacity of the savannahs ranges between three and eight ha/head. These production
systems are subject to very minimal management, and are constrained by the difficult accessibility of
most paddocks during the rainy season. Therefore, all animal categories (cows, heifers, calves, bulls
14
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
and steers) generally run together and are Table 10. Physiography of the alluvial savannahs of
harvested once or twice a year. In some Mojos, Beni
remote areas, animals may be slaughtered Sub-region
Topography
Area
on farm, and the carcasses flown to urban
km2
%
centres in cargo planes, but three important Undulating plains
Slightly undulating
23 718 17.5
all-weather roads are under construction.
Alluvial plains
Occasional seasonal flooding
57 966 42.6
The Department of Santa Cruz has Alluvial plains with Seasonally flooded
39 377 29.0
370 621 km2 and represents one third of riverine influences Occasionally flooded by rivers 14 882 10.9
the Bolivian land area; it has the highest Source: Morales and Abasto, 1999.
agricultural potential of the country. East of
the city of Santa Cruz, capital city of the Santa Cruz Department, the land is flat, soils tend to be alluvial
as a consequence of the runoff from the Andes, and the original vegetation was forest. The region is
presently largely deforested and since the 1980s has experienced a dramatic expansion of intensive
soybean-based cropping, following and adapting much of the technology employed in the Brazilian
Cerrados, on the other side of the border. Similarly, there has been a rapid, and unquantified expansion
of sown tropical pastures, again under the influence of Brazilian practices. Pastures are dominated by
Brachiaria decumbens and Brachiaria brizantha, with a minor contribution of other species such as
Brachiaria humidicola, Panicum maximum and others. Two cattle-based production systems are practised.
Near the urban centres “dual-purpose” systems are common among small and medium ranchers. These
are characterized by crossbred cows (crosses of Zebu with Criollo, Brown Swiss or Holstein) which are
milked once daily with calf at foot to allow milk let down (Patterson et al., 1981). Typical saleable milk
yields range between 2 and 6 kg milk/day/cow, frequently over extended lactations of over 280 days
and fed exclusively on low-input pastures, supplemented with mineral mixtures and with some cut-andcarry forage (elephant grass or sugar cane) during the dry season. In regions further removed from urban
centres and roads, properties tend to be larger, 300–1 500 ha on average, and generally combine crops
such as soybean and various cereals with cow-calf and beef fattening operations. Nevertheless, the crop
and cattle activities are seldom integrated in a planned manner, so that well integrated crop-livestock
systems are scarce although the potential is reputedly high (Martínez, 1999).
Extensive beef production systems also characterize the semi-arid tropics of Bolivia, part of the
large Chaco ecosystem that extends over Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Brazil. As indicated in
Tables 5 and 6, the area tends to be hot and combines extensive grassy areas with shrubs and low lying
thorny trees. Beef breeding ranches mostly have Criollo cattle, well adapted to climate and vegetation.
The grass stratum, seasonally supplemented by browsing shrubs and trees constitutes the only forage
resource. Beef productivity is extremely low, as a consequence of the low carrying capacity of the area
and minimal management. Despite the very large ecological differences with the savannah region, the
constraints of these systems are very similar (Iñiguez, 1996)
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE
RESOURCES
Development prospects vary widely across the country. The most difficult research challenge is presented
by the agricultural and animal production systems of the high Andes, for which a rather grim analysis has
recently been made by IFPRI (Walker et al., 2000). In effect, the authors argued that despite many years
of research funded by national and international resources the adoption of technologies has been minimal,
and suggest that the main constraint may be improved access to market and information, rather than technology. Nevertheless, it can also be argued that continuing research efforts on the interaction of livestock
systems (e.g. commercial exploitation of camelids) with natural resources will increasingly be needed.
The Eastern Lowlands present totally different challenges. The region has benefited, and will likely
continue to profit, from research carried out in the Brazilian Cerrados. Nevertheless, the significant
difference in soils with the Brazilian savannas require research attention on their own. Cattle production
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
15
systems in Eastern Bolivia are being modernized; this implies the need for improved grazing and feeding
strategies, and the screening of forage species adapted to the new economic circumstances. Also, there
appears to be a role for leguminous forages in the reclamation of soils compacted and degraded by
intensive cropping. Lastly, the spatial and temporal integration of crops and cattle deserves continuing
attention, as well as their environmental impacts.
Environmental and social impacts of pasture- and forage-based systems in the interandean valleys
constitute a major priority in view of the concentration of resource-poor small farmers in those areas.
The extent to which some of these valleys can contribute to the production of high value crops, as
exemplified by forage seed production, needs to be ascertained. In addition to the generation of
appropriate technologies for small farmers, institutional arrangements need to be developed.
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS
As is true in most of Spanish-speaking Latin America, government R&D institutions have been in a
state of turmoil throughout the 1990s, associated with the rapid rate of privatization of many of the
services traditionally offered by central governments. In the case of Bolivia, numerous non-government
organizations (NGOs) are active, but in general they do not carry out systematic, long-term research on
agricultural technology. Some (government-financed) universities have modest research programmes, in
general with a local or provincial focus.
IBTA, the Bolivian institute of agricultural research, has a country-wide mandate on agricultural
research with the noted exception of the Santa Cruz Department, but has lost a significant portion of its
staff and resources.
CIAT (not to be confused with the international CIAT located in Colombia) is the centre for
agricultural research in the Santa Cruz Department. It has substantial research capacity, partially
supported by a small number of British researchers, but both components, the national staff and the
expatriates, have been subjected to decreasing financial resources.
Throughout the country a number of farmers and ranchers associations are very active in influencing
rural development policies, associating small producers to face national and international markets, and
in general supporting training and capacity building. Notable examples are SEFO, a cooperative of very
small farmers that specializes in production of tropical forage seed (Ferguson, 1993), and the Fundación
Cipriano Baracé that concentrates on beef production in Beni.
8. REFERENCES
Alzérreca, H. (1985). Campos naturales de pastoreo de Bolivia. In Mesa Redonda sobre la Promoción del
Manejo de las Praderas Nativas de SudAmérica. O. Paladines, ed., Santiago, Chile, unpublished mimeo.
Alzérreca, H. (1992). Overview of small ruminant research in the Bolivian Andean zone. In Sustainable
Crop-Livestock Systems for the Bolivian Highlands, Proceedings of an SR-CRSP Workshop, C. Valdivia,
ed. Columbia: University of Missouri.
Baldivia, J. (1998). Estrategias Para Recuperar El Altiplano Pachamamam Urupa Qhantawi Bolivia.
Experiencias Exitosas En Mitigacion De La Pobreza.Cooperacion Horizontal En America Latina y El
Caribe. PNUD-World Bank- Fundacion Interamericana.
CEPAL. (1999). Boletín Demográfico. América Latina: proyecciones de población urbana y rural. Año
XXXII, No. 63. Santiago, Chile.
Cochrane, T.T. (1973). The land use potential of Bolivia: a land systems map. Ministry of Overseas
Development, F.C.O. London, England, 827 p.
Cochrane, T.T., L.G. Sánchez, L.G. de Azevedo, J.A. Porras and C.L. Garver. (1985). Land in Tropical
America. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, Colombia; Empresa Brasileira de
16
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
Pesquisa Agropecuaria, Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria dos Cerrados (EMBRAPA-CPAC), Planaltina,
D.F., Brasil, 5 volumes
Dirven, M. (1999). El papel de los agentes en las políticas agrícolas: intenciones y realidad. Revista CEPAL
68: 171. .
Estrada, R.D., O. Paladines and R. Quiros. (1998). Pobreza y degradación de suelos en los andes altos. La
experiencia de CONDESAN. VII Encuentro Internacional De RIMISP, “Impacto ambiental de la pobreza
rural, impacto social del deterioro ambiental. El rol de los instrumentos de desarrollo agrícola”. http://www.
rimisp.cl/
FAO Databases 2006 (website http://apps.fao.org/)
Ferguson, J.E. (1993). Seed biology and seed systems for Arachis pintoi. In Biology and Agronomy of
Forage Arachis. P. C. Kerridge and B. Hardy, eds. Cali: CIAT.
INE, Instituto Nacional de Esatdística. Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda de 1992. La Paz. 1992.
http://www.ine.gov.bo/
Iñiguez, L. (1996). Assessment of livestock production systems in Bolivia. In Latin America Livestock
Regional Assessment Workshop, San José, Costa Rica. University of California, Management Entity, Small
Ruminant CRSP.
Quiroga, J.C. (1992). Agroecological characterization of the Bolivian Altiplano. In Sustainable CropLivestock Systems for the Bolivian Highlands, Proceedings of an SR-CRSP Workshop, C. Valdivia, ed.
Columbia: University of Missouri.
Martínez, L. (1992). Producción de gramíneas del género Brachiaria y Panicum en Santa Cruz. In Red
Internacional de Evaluación de Pastos Tropicales, RIEPT, 1ª. Reunión de Sabanas. CIAT, Brasilia, Brasil,
pp. 23238
Martínez, L. (1999). Potencial de los sistemas agropastoriles en el manejo de suelos degradados en Santa
Cruz, Bolivia. In Sistemas Agropastoriles en Sabanas Tropicales de América Latina. E.P. Guimarães, J.O.
Sanz, I.M. Rao, M.C. Amézquita and E. Amézquita, eds. Cali: CIAT.
Morales, S. and P. Abasto. (1999). Desarrollo de un sistema de apoyo a la toma de decisiones de manejo
para la ganadería del Beni, Bolivia. Unpublished.
Patterson, R.T.C. Samur y O. (1981). Bress. Efecto de pastoreo complementario de leguminosa reservada
sobre la producción de leche durante la estación seca. Producción Animal Tropical 6: 135–140.
Walker, T., S. Swinton,, R. Hijmans, R. Quiroz, R. Valdivia, M. Holle, C. León-Velarde and J. Posner.
(2000). Technologies for the tropical Andes. Promoting Sustainable Development in Less-Favoured Areas.
IFPRI, 2020 Vision, Focus 4, Brief 3.
Other references
Macías, M. (1984). Caracterización de los suelos de la Amazonía Boliviana. OEA, Programa de Desarrollo
Integral de la Amazoía. Trinidad, Bolivia, 152 p.
Webpages of interest
The page of the Latin American Association of Animal Production, its Spanish acronym being ALPA
(Asociación Latinoamericana de Producción Animal). It provides access to the summaries of papers published
in the corresponding journal, Archivos Latinoamericanos de Producción Animal, which includes a section on
pastures, one on ruminant production and another on production systems: www.alpa.org.ve
9. CONTACTS
Mr. Bernardo Bauer
Fundación Cipriano Barace
Trinidad, Beni
Bolivia
Mr. Bauer email: [email protected]
Foundation email: [email protected]
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
Dr. Luis Iñiguez
RERUMEN
Casilla 2294
Cochabamba, Bolivia
Fax 591-42-80738
Email [email protected]
NGO’s involved in natural resource management, planning:
FUND-ECO
Campus Universitario, calle 27 Cota-Cota
Casilla 3-12376
La Paz, Bolivia
Fax 591-2-797511
Centro Interdisciplinario de Estudios Comunitarios, CIEC
C. Belisario Salinas No. 228
Casilla 159
La Paz, Bolivia
Fax 591-2-432662
Protección del Medio Ambiente Tarija, PROMETA
Mendez 172
Casilla 59
Tarija, Bolivia
Fax 591-66-33873
National Agricultural Research Institute
Dr. Edmundo Espinoza
Chief, Livestock and Forages Program
Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología Agropecuaria
Contact: Dr. Humberto Alzérreca
Casilla 5783
La Paz, Bolivia
Phone: 591-2-374589
Telefax 591-2-392551
Regional Agricultural Research Institute
Centro de Investigaciones Agrícolas Tropicale
Ing. Agr. Gustavo Pereyra, Director
Av. Ejército 131,
Casilla 247
Santa Cruz, Bolivia
Fax 591-33-42996
[email protected]
Cooperative SEFOS
Cochabamba
Bolivia
(Successful cooperative of small seed producers; specializes on tropical grasses and legumes)
Manager, Mr. Gastón Sauma
Phone: 591-42-88646
17
18
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
10. AUTHOR
Dr. Raul R. Vera is a former Senior Scientist and Leader of the Tropical Pastures Program, International
Center of Tropical Agriculture, CIAT, based in Cali, Colombia. He is currently a private consultant and
part-time researcher of the Catholic University in Santiago, Chile.
Raúl R. Vera
2 Norte 443 dpto. 52
Viña del Mar, Chile 2534194
Fax (Chile) 56-2-552 9435
[email protected]
[The profile was prepared in late 2000, edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in January, 2001 and
modified by S.G. Reynolds in May 2006.]