Download Bridges/LAN Switches

LAN switching and Bridges
Relates to Lab 6.
Covers interconnection devices (at different layers) and the difference
between LAN switching (bridging) and routing. Then discusses LAN
switching, including learning bridge algorithm, transparent bridging, and
the spanning tree protocol.
1
Outline
•
•
•
•
•
Interconnection Devices
Bridges/LAN Switches vs. Routers
Bridges
Learning Bridges
Transparent bridges
2
Introduction
• There are many different devices for interconnecting networks
Ethernet
Hub
Ethernet
Hub
Hosts
Hosts
Bridge
Router
X.25
Network
Tokenring
Gateway
3
Ethernet Hub
• Used to connect hosts to Ethernet LAN and to connect multiple Ethernet
LANs
• Collisions are propagated
Ethernet
Hub
Ethernet
Hub
Host
Host
IP
IP
LLC
LLC
802.3 MAC
Hub
Hub
802.3 MAC
4
Bridges/LAN Switches
• A bridge or LAN switch is a device that interconnects two or more Local
Area Networks (LANs) and forwards packets between these networks.
• Bridges/LAN switches operate at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
Tokenring
Bridge
IP
IP
Bridge
LLC
802.3 MAC
LLC
LAN
802.3 MAC
LLC
802.5 MAC
LAN
802.5 MAC
5
Terminology: Bridge, LAN Switch, Ethernet Switch
There are different terms to refer to a data-link layer interconnection device:
• The term bridge was coined in the early 1980s.
• Today, the terms LAN switch or (in the context of Ethernet) Ethernet
switch are used.
Convention:
• Since many of the concepts, configuration commands, and protocols for
LAN switches were developed in the 1980s, and commonly use the old
term `bridge’, we will, with few exceptions, refer to LAN switches as
bridges.
6
Ethernet Hubs vs. Ethernet Switches
• An Ethernet switch is a packet switch for Ethernet frames
• Buffering of frames prevents collisions.
• Each port is isolated and builds its own collision domain
• An Ethernet Hub does not perform buffering:
• Collisions occur if two frames arrive at the same time.
Hub
Switch
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
HighSpeed
Backplane
CSMA/CD
Input
Buffers
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
Output
Buffers
7
Dual Speed Ethernet hub
• Dual-speed hubs
operate at 10 Mbps and
100 Mbps per second
• Conceptually these
hubs operate like two
Ethernet hubs
separated by a bridge
100 Mbps
100 Mbps
100 Mbps
100 Mbps
10 Mbps
10 Mbps
10 Mbps
10 Mbps
Dual-Speed
Ethernet Hub
8
Routers
• Routers operate at the Network Layer (Layer 3)
• Interconnect IP networks
IP network
IP network
IP network
Host
Router
Host
Router
Application
Application
TCP
TCP
IP
Network
Access
Host
IP
IP protocol
Data
Link
Network
Access
IP
IP protocol
Network
Access
Router
Data
Link
Network
Access
IP protocol
Network
Access
Router
Data
Link
IP
Network
Access
Host
9
Gateways
• The term “Gateway” is used with different meanings in
different contexts
• “Gateway” is a generic term for routers (Level 3)
• “Gateway” is also used for a device that interconnects
different Layer 3 networks and which performs translation of
protocols (“Multi-protocol router”)
SNA
Network
X.25
Network
IP Network
Host
Gateway
Host
Gateway
10
Bridges versus Routers
• An enterprise network (e.g., university network) with a large
number of local area networks (LANs) can use routers or
bridges
– 1980s: LANs interconnection via bridges
– Late 1980s and early 1990s: increasingly use of routers
– Since mid1990s: LAN switches replace most routers
11
A Routed Enterprise Network
Router
Internet
Hub
FDDI
FDDI
12
A Switched Enterprise Network
Internet
Router
Bridge/
Switch
13
Example: Univ. of Virginia CS Department Network
• Design of the network architecture (Spring 2000)
• There is no router !
Gigabit Ethernet
Switch
350T
100/Giga
Ethernet Switch
350T
350T
350T
350T
350T
350T
350T
350T
350T
100 Mbps
Ethernet Switch
350T
14
Interconnecting networks:
Bridges versus Routers
Routers
Bridges/LAN switches
• Each host’s IP address must be
configured
• MAC addresses of hosts are
hardwired
• If network is reconfigured, IP
addresses may need to be
reassigned
• No network configuration needed
• Routing done via RIP or OSPF
• Each router manipulates packet
header (e.g., reduces TTL field)
• Routing done by
– learning bridge algorithm
– spanning tree algorithm
• Bridges do not manipulate frames
15
Bridges
Overall design goal: Complete transparency
“Plug-and-play”
Self-configuring without hardware or software changes
Bridges should not impact operation of existing LANs
Three parts to understanding bridges:
(1) Forwarding of Frames
(2) Learning of Addresses
(3) Spanning Tree Algorithm
16
Need for a forwarding between networks
• What do bridges do if
some LANs are
reachable only in
multiple hops ?
• What do bridges do if the
path between two LANs
is not unique ?
LAN 2
d
Bridge 4
Bridge 3
Bridge 1
LAN 5
Bridge 5
LAN 1
Bridge 2
LAN 3
LAN 4
17
Transparent Bridges
• Three principal approaches can be found:
– Fixed Routing
– Source Routing
– Spanning Tree Routing (IEEE 802.1d)
• We only discuss the last one in detail.
• Bridges that execute the spanning tree algorithm are called
transparent bridges
18
(1) Frame Forwarding
• Each bridge maintains a MAC forwarding table
• Forwarding table plays the same role as the routing table of an IP router
• Entries have the form ( MAC address, port, age), where
MAC address:
port:
age:
host name or group address
port number of bridge
aging time of entry (in seconds)
with interpretation:
a machine with MAC address lies in direction of the port number
from the bridge. The entry is age time units old.
MAC forwarding table
MAC address
port
a0:e1:34:82:ca:34
45:6d:20:23:fe:2e
1
2
age
10
20
19
(1) Frame Forwarding
• Assume a MAC frame arrives on port x.
Port x
Is MAC address of
destination in forwarding
table for ports A, B, or C ?
Bridge 2
Port A
Port C
Port B
Found?
Not
found ?
Flood the frame,
Forward the frame on the
appropriate port
i.e.,
send the frame on all
ports except port x.
20
(2) Address Learning (Learning Bridges)
• Routing tables entries are set automatically with a simple
heuristic:
The source field of a frame that arrives on a port tells
which hosts are reachable from this port.
Src=x, Dest=y
Src=x, Dest=y
Src=x,
Src=y, Dest=x
Dest=y
Port 1
Port 4
x is at Port 3
y is at Port 4
Port 2
Port 3
Port 5
Port 6
Src=x,
Src=y, Dest=x
Dest=y
Src=x, Dest=y
Src=x, Dest=y
21
(2) Address Learning (Learning Bridges)
Learning Algorithm:
• For each frame received, the source stores the source
field in the forwarding database together with the port
where the frame was received.
• All entries are deleted after some time (default is 15
seconds).
Src=y, Dest=x
Port 1
Port 4
x is at Port 3
y is at Port 4
Src=y, Dest=x
Port 2
Port 5
Port 3
Port 6
22
Example
•Consider the following packets:
(Src=A, Dest=F),
(Src=C, Dest=A), (Src=E, Dest=C)
•What have the bridges learned?
Bridge 2
Port1
Bridge 2
Port2
LAN 1
A
B
Port2
Port1
LAN 2
C
LAN 3
D
E
F
23
Danger of Loops
• Consider the two LANs that are connected
by two bridges.
• Assume host n is transmitting a
frame F with unknown destination.
What is happening?
F
• Bridges A and B flood the frame
Bridge A
to LAN 2.
F
• Bridge B sees F on LAN 2 (with
unknown destination), and copies
the frame back to LAN 1
• Bridge A does the same.
• The copying continues
Where’s the problem? What’s the solution ?
LAN 2
F
Bridge B
F
LAN 1
F
host n
24
Flooding Can Lead to Loops
• Switches sometimes need to broadcast frames
– Upon receiving a frame with an unfamiliar destination
– Upon receiving a frame sent to the broadcast address
• Broadcasting is implemented by flooding
– Transmitting frame out every interface
– … except the one where the frame arrived
• Flooding can lead to forwarding loops
– E.g., if the network contains a cycle of switches
– Either accidentally, or by design for higher reliability
25
Solution: Spanning Trees
• Ensure the topology has no loops
– Avoid using some of the links when flooding
– … to avoid forming a loop
• Spanning tree
– Sub-graph that covers all vertices but contains no
cycles
26
Solution: Spanning Trees
• Ensure the topology has no loops
– Avoid using some of the links when flooding
– … to avoid forming a loop
• Spanning tree
– Sub-graph that covers all vertices but contains no
cycles
– Links not in the spanning tree do not forward frames
27
Constructing a Spanning Tree
• Need a distributed algorithm
– Switches cooperate to build the spanning tree
– … and adapt automatically when failures occur
• Key ingredients of the algorithm
– Switches need to elect a “root”
• The switch with the smallest identifier
– For each of its interfaces, a switch identifies
if the interface is on the shortest path from the root
• And it excludes an interface from the tree if not
28
Constructing a Spanning Tree (cont. I)
•root
•One hop
•Three hops
29
Constructing a Spanning Tree (cont. II)
• Use broadcast messages; e.g. (Y, d, X)
– From node X
– Claiming Y is the root
– And the distance from X to root is d
30
Steps in Spanning Tree Algorithm
• Initially, each switch thinks it is the root
– Switch sends a message out every interface identifying
itself as the root
– Example: switch X announces (X, 0, X)
• Switches update their view of the root
– Upon receiving a message, check the root id
– If the new id is smaller, start viewing that switch as root
• Switches compute their distance from the root
– Add 1 to the distance received from a neighbor
– Identify interfaces not on a shortest path to the root
– … and exclude them from the spanning tree
31
Example From Switch #4’s Viewpoint
• Switch #4 thinks it is the root
– Sends (4, 0, 4) message to 2 and 7
• Then, switch #4 hears from #2
– Receives (2, 0, 2) message from 2
– … and thinks that #2 is the root
– And realizes it is just one hop away
•1
•3
•5
•2
• Then, switch #4 hears from #7
– Receives (2, 1, 7) from 7
– And realizes this is a longer path
– So, prefers its own one-hop path
– And removes 4-7 link from the tree
•4
•7
•6
32
Example From Switch #4’s Viewpoint
• Switch #2 hears about switch #1
– Switch 2 hears (1, 1, 3) from 3
– Switch 2 starts treating 1 as root
– And sends (1, 2, 2) to neighbors
• Switch #4 hears from switch #2
– Switch 4 starts treating 1 as root
– And sends (1, 3, 4) to neighbors
• Switch #4 hears from switch #7
– Switch 4 receives (1, 3, 7) from 7
– And realizes this is a longer path
– So, prefers its own three-hop path
– And removes 4-7 Iink from the
tree
•1
•3
•5
•2
•4
•7
•6
33
Robust Spanning Tree Algorithm
• Algorithm must react to failures
– Failure of the root node
• Need to elect a new root, with the next lowest identifier
– Failure of other switches and links
• Need to recompute the spanning tree
• Root switch continues sending messages
– Periodically reannouncing itself as the root (1, 0, 1)
– Other switches continue forwarding messages
• Detecting failures through timeout (soft state!)
– Switch waits to hear from others
– Eventually times out and claims to be the root
34
Spanning Tree Protocol (IEEE 802.1d)
•
The Spanning Tree Protocol (SPT) is a
solution to prevent loops when
forwarding frames between LANs
LAN 2
d
•
The SPT is standardized as the IEEE
802.1d protocol
•
The SPT organizes bridges and LANs
as spanning tree in a dynamic
environment
– Frames are forwarded only along
the branches of the spanning tree
– Note: Trees don’t have loops
•
Bridges that run the SPT are called
transparent bridges
•
Bridges exchange messages to
configure the bridge (Configuration
Bridge Protocol Data Unit or BPDUs) to
build the tree.
Bridge 4
Bridge 3
Bridge 1
LAN 5
Bridge 5
LAN 1
Bridge 2
LAN 3
LAN 4
35
Configuration BPDUs
Destination
MAC address
Source MAC
address
message type
Set to 0
lowest bit is "topology change bit (TC bit)
flags
Cost
bridge ID
port ID
ID of root
Cost of the path from the
bridge sending this
message
ID of bridge sending this message
message age
ID of port from which
message is sent
maximum age
Time between
BPDUs from the root
(default: 1sec)
Set to 0
version
root ID
Configuration
Message
Set to 0
protocol identifier
hello time
forward delay
Time between
recalculations of the
spanning tree
(default: 15 secs)
time since root sent a
message on
which this message is based
36
What do the BPDUs do?
With the help of the BPDUs, bridges can:
• Elect a single bridge as the root bridge.
• Calculate the distance of the shortest path to the root bridge
• Each LAN can determine a designated bridge, which is the
bridge closest to the root. The designated bridge will forward
packets towards the root bridge.
• Each bridge can determine a root port, the port that gives the
best path to the root.
• Select ports to be included in the spanning tree.
37
Concepts
• Each bridge as a unique identifier:
Bridge ID
Bridge ID = Priority :
2 bytes
Bridge MAC address: 6 bytes
– Priority is configured
– Bridge MAC address is lowest MAC addresses of all ports
• Each port of a bridge has a unique identifier (port ID).
• Root Bridge: The bridge with the lowest identifier is the root
of the spanning tree.
• Root Port:
Each bridge has a root port which identifies the
next hop from a bridge to the root.
38
Concepts
• Root Path Cost: For each bridge, the cost of the min-cost
path to the root.
• Designated Bridge, Designated Port: Single bridge on a
LAN that provides the minimal cost path to the
root for this LAN:
- if two bridges have the same cost, select the
one with highest priority
- if the min-cost bridge has two or more ports
on the LAN, select the port with the lowest
identifier
• Note: We assume that “cost” of a path is the number of “hops”.
39
Steps of Spanning Tree Algorithm
• Each bridge is sending out BPDUs that contain the following
information:
root ID cost bridge ID port ID
root bridge (what the sender thinks it is)
root path cost for sending bridge
Identifies sending bridge
Identifies the sending port
• The transmission of BPDUs results in the distributed
computation of a spanning tree
• The convergence of the algorithm is very quick
40
Ordering of Messages
• We define an ordering of BPDU messages
ID R1 C1 ID B1 ID P1
M1
ID R2 C2 ID B2 ID P2
M2
We say M1 advertises a better path than M2 (“M1<<M2”) if
(R1 < R2),
Or (R1 == R2) and (C1 < C2),
Or (R1 == R2) and (C1 == C2) and (B1 < B2),
Or (R1 == R2) and (C1 == C2) and (B1 == B2) and (P1 < P2)
41
Initializing the Spanning Tree Protocol
• Initially, all bridges assume they are the root bridge.
• Each bridge B sends BPDUs of this form on its LANs from
each port P:
B
0
B
P
• Each bridge looks at the BPDUs received on all its ports and
its own transmitted BPDUs.
• Root bridge is the smallest received root ID that has been
received so far (Whenever a smaller ID arrives, the root is
updated)
42
Operations of Spanning Tree Protocol
• Each bridge B looks on all its ports for BPDUs that are better than its own
BPDUs
• Suppose a bridge with BPDU:
M1
R1 C1 B1 P1
receives a “better” BPDU:
M2
R2 C2 B2 P2
Then it will update the BPDU to:
R2 C2+1 B1 P1
• However, the new BPDU is not necessarily sent out
• On each bridge, the port where the “best BPDU” (via relation “<<“) was
received is the root port of the bridge.
43
When to send a BPDU
• Say, B has generated a BPDU for each port x
R
Cost
B
x
• B will send this BPDU on port x only if its
BPDU is better (via relation “<<“) than any
BPDU that B received from port x.
Port x
Bridge B
Port A
Port C
Port B
• In this case, B also assumes that it
is the designated bridge for the
LAN to which the port connects
• And port x is the designated port of that LAN
44
Selecting the Ports for the Spanning Tree
• Each bridges makes a local decision which of its ports are
part of the spanning tree
• Now B can decide which ports are in the spanning tree:
• B’s root port is part of the spanning tree
• All designated ports are part of the spanning tree
• All other ports are not part of the spanning tree
• B’s ports that are in the spanning tree will forward packets
(=forwarding state)
• B’s ports that are not in the spanning tree will not forward
packets (=blocking state)
45
Building the Spanning Tree
• Consider the network on the right.
• Assume that the bridges have
calculated the designated ports
(D) and the root ports (P) as
indicated.
LAN 2
d
D
Bridge
Bridge
D
R
R
LAN 5
Bridge
R
• What is the spanning tree?
– On each LAN, connect R ports
to the D ports on this LAN
Bridge
D
LAN 1
R
D
LAN 3
Bridge
D
LAN 4
46
Example
•
•
Assume that all bridges send out their BPDU’s once per second, and assume that
all bridges send their BPDUs at the same time
Assume that all bridges are turned on simultaneously at time T=0 sec.
Bridge ID 5
Bridge ID 7
LAN
LAN
port C
port A
port C
port A
LAN
port B
port B
port B
port A
LAN
Bridge
ID 3
port A
Bridge
ID 1
port B
port A
LAN
port C
Bridge ID
2
port B
port B
LAN
port A
port C
port D
Bridge ID 6
LAN
47
Example: BPDU’s sent by the bridges
T=0sec
Bridge 1
Bridge 2
Bridge 3
Bridge 5
Bridge 6
Bridge 7
(1,0,1,port)
(2,0,2,port)
(3,0,3,port)
(5,0,5,port)
(6,0,6,port)
(7,0,7,port)
sent on ports:
A,B
ports
A,B
ports A,B,C
ports
A,B,C
ports
A,B,C,D
ports
A,B,C
(1,0,1,port)
A,B
(2,0,2,port)
A,B
(1,1,3,port)
A,C
(1,1,5,port)
B,C
(1,1,6,port)
A,C,D
(1,1,7,port)
A
(1,0,1,port)
A,B
(1,2,2,port)
none
(1,1,3,port)
A,C
(1,1,5,port)
B,C
(1,1,6,port)
D
(1,1,7,port)
none
T=1sec
T=2sec
• In the table (1,0,1,port) means that the BPDU is (1,0,1,A) if the BPDU is sent on port A
and (1,0,1,B) if it is sent on port B.
•At T=1, Bridge 7 receives two BPDUs from Bridge 1: (1,0,1,A) and (1,0,1,B). We assume
that A is numerically smaller than B. If this is not true, then the root port of Bridge 7
changes.
48
Example: Settings after convergence
Root Port
Designated Ports
Blocked ports
Bridge
1
Bridge
2
Bridge
3
Bridge
5
Bridge
6
Bridge
7
-
A
B
A
B
B
A,B
-
A,C
B,C
D
-
-
B
-
-
A,C
A,C
Bridge ID 5
Bridge ID 7
LAN
Resulting tree:
LAN
port C
port A
LAN
port C
port A
port B
port B
port B
port A
LAN
Bridge
ID 3
port A
Bridge
ID 1
port B
port A
LAN
port C
port B
port B
LAN
port A
Bridge ID
2
port C
port D
Bridge ID 6
LAN
49