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The Pax Romana 31 BCE – 180 CE • The Latin word pax, translates to “peace” and Romana refers to “Rome” – the Roman Peace. • During the Pax Romana period there were 200 years of peace within the Roman Empire (31 BCE – 180 CE) [Augustus to Marcus Aurelius] • The Pax Romana marked the end of the Republic, the beginning of the Principate, and the last civil war that was to be fought during the BC era. • The republic, which had been ravaged by civil wars for the past century, however, the empire was relatively free of largescale power disputes during the Pax Romana (minus the Year of the Four Emperors) • The Pax Romana is sometimes referred to as the Pax Augusta since it was established under Augustus Caesar • The Pax Romana commenced just after Augustus, then known as Octavian, defeated Roman general Mark Antony & his mistress Cleopatra, at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE) • Augustus – great-nephew of Julius Caesar - adopted, succeeded Caesar upon his death • If Augustus learned anything from the fate of Caesar it was to publicly avoid the appearance of grasping at too much power – the fate of a dictator • He accepted public offices granted to him by the Senate, but he did not flaunt his authority • In his own words: “I have transferred the Republic from my own power to the authority of the Senate and the Roman people" • This action showed shrewd political planning, as Augustus used it purely for public show • The Senate awarded him the name of Augustus – “great” or “powerful” • The Roman mobs demanded that he retain power • Augustus carefully retained the titles of traditional offices to disguise his absolute power - kept only the offices of consul and proconsul and claimed that he held no more power than his colleagues • Augustus did rule with absolute power but instead of adopting the title of emperor, a.k.a. “imperator,” he went by the label of princeps • Princeps - first citizen, or first among men – includes himself with the Roman body but just enough separation to show that he is in charge • Title is less intimidating in its meaning than emperor or king - made it seem like he wanted less power for himself and that he was willing to work with the Senate to make Rome great after the civil wars of the past 100 years • They senate and people also made him pontifex maximus, the head of the state religion, and finally pater patriae or "father of the country" • These offices and titles gave Augustus no real additional power, for he already controlled every aspect of religious, civil, and military life • He attempted to keep a semblance of the old laws and institutions of the Republic in place for the people of Rome – illustrates he is not a tyrant, Senate believes they have power, etc. • Under Augustus, the pax romana or period of Roman peace began and the empire flourished. He placed the empire on sound footing by introducing a number of key political and social reforms. • He decided to share control of the provinces with the Senate: - Senate administered settled provinces - Emperor directed the new frontiers (where the legions were stationed) Augustus had done this purposely as it allowed him to keep full control over the Roman army We’ve seen the importance of having a loyal army over the past 100 years with the civil wars Government Reforms • Augustus worked to reduce class hostility and civil unrest in the capital and established an administrative apparatus to govern the empire • Caesar’s policy of granting citizenship to people in the provinces - Rome had conquered people of various cultural and linguistic backgrounds who inhabited the Italian Peninsula and had only granted citizenship sparingly, causing some bitter feelings • The possession of citizenship was desired by Romans and barbari alike. Made you safe from the death penalty, you could vote, marry, and make contracts. • He wanted to make the Roman Empire a cohesive unit Papyri – letter recognizing Roman citizenship for a man living in province of Egypt The legionaries who made up the empire's heavy infantry were citizens, but conquered peoples provided auxiliary troops with the skills that the Romans lacked. Cavalry from Gaul, archers from Lebanon, and slingers from the Spanish island of Mallorca – they all fought for Rome. They learned Latin and received Roman citizenship for themselves and their families when they retired. Roman Army • Once Augustus had defeated Mark Antony, he began to reduce the empire's remaining military forces from 60 legions to 28 - provided over 100,000 men with land - traditional form of pension • Augustus reduced the military forces and provided men mostly with the land in 1 of the 40 new colonies around the Mediterranean (i.e. Turin, Spain, Tangier, Beirut) - these colonies provided additional security in the provinces • In so doing he reinforced the boundaries of the empire, favoured its expansion, and created new important centres for spreading the Roman way of life • He also established a central military treasury and set funds for the legionaries – a way to bind his troops to him – he would reward them with regular compensation, occasional bonus, and promotions • He guaranteed the security of the border areas – strategically placed legions • Roman soldiers swore an annual oath of loyalty to the emperor – January 1st of every year • To protect himself and the Empire, Augustus established the Praetorian Guard • Composed of 9 cohorts of 500 men – acted as the personal body guard of the emperor and his family • Members were given special treatment – they served for only 16 years and received 3x the pay of a regular Roman legionnaire • To avoid the appearance of a dictatorship, Augustus stationed the men at various places outside of Rome itself – they were always at his beck and call, should he need them • Has central control of both Roman army and Praetorian guard • He also established a civil service of men who were responsible to him to justly govern the province • During the republic, the government had ruled the provinces ineffectively • Provincial governorships were seen as opportunities for enrichment or as stepping-stones to higher office • Augustus was determined to improve imperial administration by making senators managers rather than politicians • These men were known as governors – Augustus selected the men based upon their skills and merit rather than their social standing • Previously, being of a higher class and having connections meant you could have a job with a snap of your fingers – not to the same degree under Augustus • He paid the governors for their work Economy The Augustan Age sparked a major economic revival. The emperor directly controlled coinage, taxation, and his own enormous estates, but otherwise allowed the economy to operate freely, with demand dictating prices and profits • In addition to establishing a basic administrative structure, Augustus also had to monitor the everyday issues of taxation and local services • As a result of the civil war, the state treasury was empty • Augustus, after his conquest of Egypt, had personally received the accumulated treasure of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra and her predecessors as well as a vast ongoing income from Egyptian production, trade, and taxes • He contributed large amounts of this income to the treasury • He also replaced the corrupt private tax collectors with state employees and managed to balance Rome's budget • Ordered a complete census of the empire to introduce a more uniform tax system which would promote equal and fair treatment of the provinces - poor vs. rich • For the first time, he established public police and fire protection for Rome and kept close control over grain distribution and the water supply • • • • • Trade: Imports & Exports There was a steady flow of products moving in and out of Rome under Augustus Romans shipped food and rare raw materials like colored marble throughout the Mediterranean The frontiers of the empire did not hinder trade German peddlers crossed the borders in both directions, bringing amber from the Baltic and exchanging it for Roman artifacts Egyptian papyrus reeds for paper, purple dye from Syria, glass from Palestine, and Spanish ironwork • They did not trade directly with Arabia, Africa, India, and China, but received incense, ivory, pepper, and silk from these countries through intermediaries • Grain was flowing in from Egypt – steady source of nourishment for the Romans • One of the most important centres of manufactory under the empire Gaul, where more and more craftsmen produced weapons, pottery, boots, clothing, and building material for the increasing necessities of the military Moral Legislation - The Romans believed that political corruption in the late republic was connected to moral decline - Immoral sexual behavior and the pursuit of political advancement led members of the upper classes to avoid marriage, divorce more frequently, and have fewer traditional relationships - Results: the Roman population, already greatly diminished by the civil wars, experienced a noticeable decline in the birth rate - Augustus believed in the values and traditions of the Early Roman Empire – encouraged devotion to family duties - Augustus added an important moral dimension to his political program - He passed legislation to encourage marriage and childbearing unmarried and the childless suffered political and financial penalties while those with three or more children received special privileges (esp. Senators) - Augustus also made adultery a criminal offense – sent his daughter Julia, into exile for having illicit sexual affairs - His marriage to Livia lasted for over 50 years, ending only with his death, provided a shining example for the Roman people to emulate Ovid (20 March 43 BCE – CE 17/18) - An imperial poet - Exiled by Augustus - The Julian Marriage Laws of 18 BCE – monogamous marriage - Ovid's writing in the Ars Amatoria concerned the serious crime of adultery – banished because his writings were subversive to the emperor's moral legislation? - This era was one of pre-eminent literary achievement - some of the greatest and most influential Latin writers in Roman history developed their various styles in this period – thrived due to patronage from the emperor - Other notable poets and writers during the pax romana: Virgil, Horace. Religion Reinvigorated • Idea of pietas – “duty” or “devotion” - the belief that all Romans • • • • owed loyalty to the gods of Rome The emperor's Italian supporters outside of the senatorial elite were devoted to traditional religion as well as conventional morality Augustus promoted the observance of religious festivals in Rome He revived neglected ceremonies and restored 82 temples that had fallen into ruins (Lupercalia Festival, Temple of Divine Julius, Magna Mater) Closed the gates of Janus three times during his rule Temple of Mars Ultore • Located in the Forum of Augustus • Battle of Philippi – Octavian promises to build Mars, god of war, a temple if he helps him avenge the death of Caesar by defeating his murderers (Brutus & Cassius) in battle • Built out of large blocks of Grottascura tufa stone faced in white Luna marble • Temple inaugurated in 2 BC, 40 years after it was first vowed Public Works - Augustus went on an intense beautification of Rome (and other cities). He made them cleaner, better organised, more efficient, and extremely beautiful - Augustus laid claim to numerous grandiose public works - Added 3 new aqueducts, the Julia, Virgo and Alsietina (the first two administered under Marcus Agrippa) - The Via Flaminia (the road from Rome to Ariminium in NE Italy) • Many bridges were also constructed under the reign of Augustus • Great structures were finished, repaired or rebuilt including the Capitol, the Theatre of Pompey, the Forum Julia and Basilica (started by Caesar) • In addition, statues and works of art as well as other imperial building projects were sponsored throughout the empire • All of this was done to ensure that the empire was a far safer and more peaceful place in which to live • Augustus also aimed to make the empire more efficient and profitable during the period of the pax romana • He aimed to unite the empire as one cohesive unit • This is when Rome is at her most powerful, beautiful, and richest Results of the Pax Romana: • Extended borders to Asia Minor and secured frontiers • Political order and good government • Prosperity: improved harbors, cleared forests, drained swamps, and turned unused land into farms • Flourishing of literature and art • Building and restoration of monuments and aqueducts • Roads were constructed • Products flowed into Rome from all over the empire • New cities were built and old ones expanded Rome establishing itself as a civilization and leaving its impact upon the world – we see this through their architecture, artifacts, and the impact they have had upon other civilizations, the likes of which are still studied to this day