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The Pax Romana
31 BCE – 180 CE
• The Latin word pax, translates to “peace” and Romana refers
to “Rome” – the Roman Peace.
• During the Pax Romana period there were 200 years of peace
within the Roman Empire (31 BCE – 180 CE) [Augustus to
Marcus Aurelius]
• The Pax Romana marked the end of the Republic, the
beginning of the Principate, and the last civil war that was to
be fought during the BC era.
• The republic, which had been ravaged by civil wars for the
past century, however, the empire was relatively free of largescale power disputes during the Pax Romana (minus the Year
of the Four Emperors)
• The Pax Romana is sometimes referred to as the Pax
Augusta since it was established under Augustus Caesar
• The Pax Romana commenced just after Augustus, then known
as Octavian, defeated Roman general Mark Antony & his
mistress Cleopatra, at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE)
• Augustus – great-nephew of
Julius Caesar - adopted,
succeeded Caesar upon his
death
• If Augustus learned anything
from the fate of Caesar it was
to publicly avoid the
appearance of grasping at too
much power – the fate of a
dictator
• He accepted public offices
granted to him by the Senate,
but he did not flaunt his
authority
• In his own words: “I have
transferred the Republic from
my own power to the
authority of the Senate and the
Roman people"
• This action showed shrewd
political planning, as Augustus
used it purely for public show
• The Senate awarded him the
name of Augustus – “great”
or “powerful”
• The Roman mobs demanded
that he retain power
• Augustus carefully retained
the titles of traditional offices
to disguise his absolute
power - kept only the offices
of consul and proconsul and
claimed that he held no more
power than his colleagues
• Augustus did rule with absolute power but instead of adopting the title of
emperor, a.k.a. “imperator,” he went by the label of princeps
• Princeps - first citizen, or first among men – includes himself with the
Roman body but just enough separation to show that he is in charge
• Title is less intimidating in its meaning than emperor or king - made it
seem like he wanted less power for himself and that he was willing to
work with the Senate to make Rome great after the civil wars of the past
100 years
• They senate and people also made him pontifex maximus, the head of
the state religion, and finally pater patriae or "father of the country"
• These offices and titles gave Augustus no real additional power, for he
already controlled every aspect of religious, civil, and military life
• He attempted to keep a semblance of the old laws and institutions of the
Republic in place for the people of Rome – illustrates he is not a tyrant,
Senate believes they have power, etc.
• Under Augustus, the pax romana or
period of Roman peace began and the
empire flourished. He placed the
empire on sound footing by
introducing a number of key
political and social reforms.
• He decided to share control of the
provinces with the Senate:
- Senate administered settled provinces
- Emperor directed the new frontiers
(where the legions were stationed)
Augustus had done this purposely as it
allowed him to keep full control over the
Roman army
We’ve seen the importance of having a
loyal army over the past 100 years with
the civil wars
Government Reforms
• Augustus worked to reduce class
hostility and civil unrest in the
capital and established an
administrative apparatus to govern the
empire
• Caesar’s policy of granting citizenship
to people in the provinces - Rome had
conquered people of various cultural
and linguistic backgrounds who
inhabited the Italian Peninsula and had
only granted citizenship sparingly,
causing some bitter feelings
• The possession of citizenship was
desired by Romans and barbari alike.
Made you safe from the death
penalty, you could vote, marry, and
make contracts.
• He wanted to make the Roman Empire
a cohesive unit
Papyri – letter recognizing
Roman citizenship for a man
living in province of Egypt
The legionaries who made up the empire's
heavy infantry were citizens, but conquered
peoples provided auxiliary troops with the
skills that the Romans lacked. Cavalry from
Gaul, archers from Lebanon, and slingers
from the Spanish island of Mallorca – they all
fought for Rome. They learned Latin and
received Roman citizenship for themselves
and their families when they retired.
Roman Army
• Once Augustus had defeated Mark Antony, he began to reduce the
empire's remaining military forces from 60 legions to 28 - provided
over 100,000 men with land - traditional form of pension
• Augustus reduced the military forces and provided men mostly with
the land in 1 of the 40 new colonies around the Mediterranean (i.e.
Turin, Spain, Tangier, Beirut) - these colonies provided additional
security in the provinces
• In so doing he reinforced the boundaries of the empire,
favoured its expansion, and created new important
centres for spreading the Roman way of life
• He also established a central military treasury and set funds for
the legionaries – a way to bind his troops to him – he would reward
them with regular compensation, occasional bonus, and promotions
• He guaranteed the security of the border areas – strategically placed
legions
• Roman soldiers swore an annual oath of loyalty to the emperor –
January 1st of every year
• To protect himself and the Empire,
Augustus established the
Praetorian Guard
• Composed of 9 cohorts of 500 men
– acted as the personal body
guard of the emperor and his
family
• Members were given special
treatment – they served for only 16
years and received 3x the pay of a
regular Roman legionnaire
• To avoid the appearance of a
dictatorship, Augustus stationed the
men at various places outside of
Rome itself – they were always at
his beck and call, should he need
them
• Has central control of both Roman
army and Praetorian guard
• He also established a civil service of men who were responsible to
him to justly govern the province
• During the republic, the government had ruled the provinces
ineffectively
• Provincial governorships were seen as opportunities for
enrichment or as stepping-stones to higher office
• Augustus was determined to improve imperial administration
by making senators managers rather than politicians
• These men were known as governors – Augustus selected the
men based upon their skills and merit rather than their social
standing
• Previously, being of a higher class and having connections meant
you could have a job with a snap of your fingers – not to the same
degree under Augustus
• He paid the governors for their work
Economy
The Augustan Age sparked a major economic revival. The
emperor directly controlled coinage, taxation, and his own
enormous estates, but otherwise allowed the economy to
operate freely, with demand dictating prices and profits
• In addition to establishing a basic
administrative structure,
Augustus also had to monitor the
everyday issues of taxation
and local services
• As a result of the civil war, the
state treasury was empty
• Augustus, after his conquest of
Egypt, had personally received
the accumulated treasure of the
Egyptian queen Cleopatra and her
predecessors as well as a vast
ongoing income from Egyptian
production, trade, and taxes
• He contributed large amounts of
this income to the treasury
• He also replaced the corrupt
private tax collectors with
state employees and managed
to balance Rome's budget
• Ordered a complete census of
the empire to introduce a
more uniform tax system
which would promote equal
and fair treatment of the
provinces - poor vs. rich
• For the first time, he
established public police
and fire protection for
Rome and kept close control
over grain distribution and
the water supply
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Trade: Imports & Exports
There was a steady flow of products
moving in and out of Rome under
Augustus
Romans shipped food and rare raw
materials like colored marble
throughout the Mediterranean
The frontiers of the empire did not
hinder trade
German peddlers crossed the borders in
both directions, bringing amber from
the Baltic and exchanging it for Roman
artifacts
Egyptian papyrus reeds for paper,
purple dye from Syria, glass from
Palestine, and Spanish ironwork
• They did not trade directly with
Arabia, Africa, India, and China, but
received incense, ivory, pepper, and
silk from these countries through
intermediaries
• Grain was flowing in from Egypt
– steady source of nourishment for
the Romans
• One of the most important centres of
manufactory under the empire Gaul, where more and more
craftsmen produced weapons,
pottery, boots, clothing, and building
material for the increasing
necessities of the military
Moral Legislation
- The Romans believed that political corruption in the late republic
was connected to moral decline
- Immoral sexual behavior and the pursuit of political advancement
led members of the upper classes to avoid marriage, divorce more
frequently, and have fewer traditional relationships
- Results: the Roman population, already greatly diminished by the
civil wars, experienced a noticeable decline in the birth rate
- Augustus believed in the values and traditions of the Early
Roman Empire – encouraged devotion to family duties
- Augustus added an important
moral dimension to his political
program
- He passed legislation to encourage
marriage and childbearing unmarried and the childless
suffered political and financial
penalties while those with three or
more children received special
privileges (esp. Senators)
- Augustus also made adultery a
criminal offense – sent his
daughter Julia, into exile for
having illicit sexual affairs
- His marriage to Livia lasted for
over 50 years, ending only with his
death, provided a shining example
for the Roman people to emulate
Ovid
(20 March 43 BCE – CE 17/18)
- An imperial poet
- Exiled by Augustus - The Julian
Marriage Laws of 18 BCE –
monogamous marriage
- Ovid's writing in the Ars
Amatoria concerned the serious crime
of adultery – banished because his
writings were subversive to the emperor's
moral legislation?
- This era was one of pre-eminent
literary achievement - some of the
greatest and most influential Latin
writers in Roman history developed their
various styles in this period – thrived due
to patronage from the emperor
- Other notable poets and writers during
the pax romana: Virgil, Horace.
Religion Reinvigorated
• Idea of pietas – “duty” or “devotion” - the belief that all Romans
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owed loyalty to the gods of Rome
The emperor's Italian supporters outside of the senatorial elite were
devoted to traditional religion as well as conventional morality
Augustus promoted the observance of religious festivals in Rome
He revived neglected ceremonies and restored 82 temples that had
fallen into ruins (Lupercalia Festival, Temple of Divine Julius,
Magna Mater)
Closed the gates of Janus three times during his rule
Temple of Mars Ultore
• Located in the Forum of Augustus
• Battle of Philippi – Octavian promises to build Mars, god
of war, a temple if he helps him avenge the death of
Caesar by defeating his murderers (Brutus & Cassius) in
battle
• Built out of large blocks of Grottascura tufa stone faced
in white Luna marble
• Temple inaugurated in 2 BC, 40 years after it was first
vowed
Public Works
- Augustus went on an
intense beautification of
Rome (and other cities). He
made them cleaner, better
organised, more efficient,
and extremely beautiful
- Augustus laid claim to
numerous grandiose public
works
- Added 3 new aqueducts,
the Julia, Virgo and
Alsietina (the first two
administered under Marcus
Agrippa)
- The Via Flaminia (the road
from Rome to Ariminium
in NE Italy)
• Many bridges were also
constructed under the
reign of Augustus
• Great structures were
finished, repaired or
rebuilt including the
Capitol, the Theatre of
Pompey, the Forum Julia
and Basilica (started by
Caesar)
• In addition, statues and
works of art as well as
other imperial building
projects were sponsored
throughout the empire
• All of this was done to ensure that the empire was a far
safer and more peaceful place in which to live
• Augustus also aimed to make the empire more efficient
and profitable during the period of the pax romana
• He aimed to unite the empire as one cohesive unit
• This is when Rome is at her most powerful, beautiful, and
richest
Results of the Pax Romana:
• Extended borders to Asia Minor and secured frontiers
• Political order and good government
• Prosperity: improved harbors, cleared forests, drained
swamps, and turned unused land into farms
• Flourishing of literature and art
• Building and restoration of monuments and aqueducts
• Roads were constructed
• Products flowed into Rome from all over the empire
• New cities were built and old ones expanded
Rome establishing itself as a civilization and leaving its impact
upon the world – we see this through their architecture, artifacts,
and the impact they have had upon other civilizations, the likes of
which are still studied to this day