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Chapter 5 The Roman Empire Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Augustan Principate Princeps - the democratic-evoking title adopted by Octavian, meaning “first citizen,” which somewhat mitigated the monarchial analogue of his position. In 27 B.C.E., the Senate, at Octavian’s bequest, granted him imperium maius, the greatest proconsular power, and the tribunician power, which allowed him to conduct business in the Senate and veto Senate decisions. He also gained the semireligious title Augustus, implying veneration, holiness, and majesty. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Administration Augustus brought prosperity to Rome by reforming its administration. Augustus purged the Senate of undesirable members and set its limit at 600. Augustus controlled the Senate elections to ensure that promising young men would join the Senate after a period of magistracy. Installed the first Roman police department, fire department, controlled grain distribution, and monitored aquatics. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Army and Defense After a barbarian defeat in 9 B.C.E., Augustus abandoned defense of the northern frontier. Augustus reformed the Army to include twenty year enlistments, good pay, occasional bonuses and a pension. Over time, Romanized provinces became buffers against the barbarians outside the provinces. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Religion and Morality Introduced laws curbing divorce, encouraging early marriage, and encouraging procreation. Augustus built many temples, revived old cults, and banned the worship of new, foreign gods. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Civilization of the Ciceronian and Augustan Ages The high point of Roman culture came in the last century of the Republic, and during the Principate of Augustus. The periods evince both dominant Greek influence and uniquely Roman qualities. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Late Republic Cicero was a famous orator who believed in a world governed by natural laws that humans could interpret. His writings were an important legacy in the Middle Ages and were reinterpreted in the Renaissance. Much of the work of the great Roman historian Sallust is lost, but the military accounts of Julius Caesar survive. The Roman legal code was developed by praetors and eventually adopted the view that law was natural. The poetry of Lucretius aimed to save society from fear and superstition. The aristocratic Catullus wrote personal, sometimes autobiographical, poetry. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Age of Augustus Virgil’s poetry glorified the civil greatness, peace, and prosperity that Augustus brought to Rome. Horace was a great lyric poet. Ovid wrote about the sexual licentiousness of the Roman aristocracy, which prompted his exile by Augustus. Livy gathered a host of sources into an impressive narrative of Rome’s birth to the present. Architecture in the Augustan period was influenced by the Greek classical style. Augustus beautified Rome with many new buildings, rebuilt the Roman forum, and built a forum of his own. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Imperial Rome, 14–180 C.E. The successors of Augustus were known by the title imperator, or emperor. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Emperors Tiberius, Gaius, Claudius, and Nero succeeded Augustus and were descended from either him or Livia, his wife. The Praetorian Guard assassinated the unruly Caius, commonly remembered as Caligula, and established Claudius as imperator. Nero’s unpopularity led to rebellion in 68 C.E. and military conflict ensued from which Vespasian emerged victorious. After the death of Vespasian’s two sons, who succeeded him as emperor, the “five good Emperors” ruled, each was appointed by the Senate. The death of Marcus Aurelius and the elevation of his son to emperor ended the reign of “five good Emperors” and had unfortunate results. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Administration of the Empire Romans left towns in charge of councils of citizens who gained Roman citizenship by serving in the government. Jews found their religion incompatible with Roman demands and were savagely repressed. Trajan initiated alimenta, a welfare program for the children of the poor. As cities prospered, the countryside suffered from lack of resources and attention. Trajan captured Dacia, Hadrian fortified Roman holdings, and Marcus Aurelius spent much of his time fighting barbarians in the east and on the Danube. Eventually coloni, lower class tenant farmers, replaced slave as the source of Roman agricultural labor. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Women of the Upper Classes Women conducted salons, took part in literary groups, and, sometimes, conducted free sexual lives. Several women close to emperors had great influence on their policies, lives, and, sometimes, deaths. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Life in Imperial Rome: The Apartment House Rome had at least 500,000 and perhaps as many as one million people. Living space was cramped, so residents lived in five- or six-story apartments. The wooden buildings were fire hazards and sanitary conditions were not pleasant. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Culture of the Early Empire The literary period between the death of Augustus and the time of Marcus Aurelius is known as the Silver Age; writers were known for their gloom, negativity, and pessimism. The Romans designed two new buildings: the large public bath and the amphitheatre. During this time, the Pantheon was built. Gladiator battles were a popular pastime as people increasingly turned away from public service and the Roman population declined. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Rise of Christianity Christianity emerged, spread and conquered the Roman Empire despite its humble origins. It faced a great deal of opposition from the Empire, mystery religions and other sources, but still managed to succeed. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Jesus of Nazareth Jesus taught that the Day of Judgment was at hand and that the messiah would come. Many believed he was the son of God. He preached abandoning sin and worldly concerns, and wanted people to embrace love, humility and charity. The Roman governor mistakenly thought Jesus and his followers were revolutionaries and crucified him around 30 C.E. He is said to have been resurrected three days later. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Paul of Tarsus Paul converted from Judaism and reconciled early Christianity’s Jewish beginnings by abandoning features that would make the new religion difficult to follow. Paul thought Christians should be evangelists, or messengers of God. He also taught that the Day of Judgment would come soon and that all who asked for God’s salvation would receive it. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Organization Christian communities were notable for the way each member of the community took care of one another. Christian customs included baptism, agape (love feasts), and Eucharist (Thanksgiving). Churches gradually grew in power and bishops kept order in the community. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Persecution of Christians The Roman government distrusted Christians because they were an independent association. Mobs disliked Christians for having their own belief system, which may have appeared smug to the average citizen. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Emergence of Catholicism The Catholic was a body of orthodox, i.e. “correct” beliefs about Christianity. Over time, holy books and knowledge were incorporated into the Christian Orthodoxy, including the Old Testament, the Gospels, and the Epistles of Paul. By the second century, one had to accept the authority of the Catholic doctrine to be a Christian. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Barbarian Invasions In the East, the Sassanians pressured the Romans and captured Mesopotamia. The Goths, Franks, and Alemanni were Germanic tribes that pressured the northern and western frontier of Rome. The Roman army was not equipped to deal with these threats despite increased conscription. Septimius Severus was a military usurper who was beloved by his soldiers and planned to create a military monarchy. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Economic Difficulties To raise money, the emperors invented new taxes, debased the coinage, and even sold the palace furniture, but they still could not raise troops. Even Septimius’ meritocratic reforms could not attract men into the army. The empire had to compel people to provide food, supplies, money, labor, and for upper classes to serve on city councils. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Social Order Society began to take on an increasingly military appearance. Septimius formally established a difference between the honestiores (upper classes) and the humilores (lower classes). As time passed, social climbing became more difficult. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Civil Disorder Turmoil engulfed the empire’s leadership between the death of Commodus in 192 C.E. and the rise of Gothicus in 268 C.E. Gothicus and Aurelian drove back barbarians and stamped out internal disorder. They built heavy walls and changed Rome’s military policy to one of defense. Mercenaries largely made up their armies. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Late Empire During the fourth and fifth centuries, the Romans faced a number of both internal and external challenges. The hard and dangerous times may have helped the rise of Christianity. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Fourth Century and Imperial Reorganization Diocletian divided the empire into a tetrarchy: four sections each ruled by a different person. After his death, Constantine, the son of one of the four tetrarchs, gained complete control of the Empire and established a capital in Constantinople, present-day Istanbul. Constantine reorganized the civilian bureaucracy and separated it from the military for security. Valentinian and Valens ruled as co-emperors in the West and East to defend the Empire against barbarians. Barbarians overran the western empire, whose members retreated into the countryside as Roman order collapsed. In the East, the Byzantine Empire flourished culturally and militarily. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Triumph of Christianity Manichaeism was a rival of Christianity that depicted the world as a struggle between good and evil. Christians were persecuted and made scapegoats for much of the first three centuries C.E. In 311, Galerius issued the Edict of Toleration, permitting Christian worship. Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the Empire. Doctrinal battles within Christianity created much conflict in the future. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Arts and Letters in the Late Empire Classical culture was preserved. Christian historians re-interpreted history as God’s will. Augustine believed faith is essential and primary but is not a substitute for human reason. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Fall of the Rome: Interpretations Rome’s conquest fueled its expansion until it could not expand anymore and had to retract. Other historians look for a combination of socioeconomic factors like exhaustion of soil, plague, climate change. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.