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Chapter 2
Social Research
Chapter Outline
Sources of Knowledge
 A Model for Doing Research
 Causation and the Logic of Science
 Quantitative Research Methods
 Qualitative Research Methods
 Ethics in Social Research
 A Final Note

How Do We Know What
We Know?

Four major nonscientific sources of
knowledge

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Intuition – quick and ready insight not based
on rational thought
Common sense – refers to opinions widely
held because they seem obvious
Authority – someone who supposedly has
special knowledge that not everyone has
Tradition – knowledge because that is what
those older than us state as fact
Questioning What We Know



Nonscientific knowledge often provides
false or misleading information, therefore
we need to question what we think we
know.
We need to seek an understanding of
where and how the information was
gathered.
Application of the scientific method
when doing and accepting research is
very helpful.
A Model for Doing Research:
The Scientific Method
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Identifying the problem.
Reviewing the literature.
Formulating hypotheses.
Developing a research design.
Collecting data.
Analyzing data.
Stating findings and conclusions.
Identifying the Problem

Questions addressed here in the
development of stating the problem
include:
 What is the topic for investigation?
 In what is the researcher interested in
learning more information?
 How will society and research be
enriched from the information to
be gathered?
Reviewing the Literature and
Formulating Hypotheses


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Examine the existing literature for relevant
theories and previous research methods
and findings.
After examination of the literature, the
sociologist states tentative but testable
statements about the relationships he/she
anticipates to find between variables.
Operational definitions are provided at this
point as well. Therefore, abstract concepts
are defined in simpler, observable
procedures.
Developing a Research Design

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
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Description of the procedures and/or
process that will be used to collect and
analyze the data.
Many refer to this as selection of a
research method.
For instance, will a survey method or
participant observation method be used?
Identification of the population and
sample is important at this stage.
What is a Population?


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Population – all the people within the
group/category of which the researcher is
seeking knowledge about.
Sample – limited number of people from
the population.
It is important to select a random and
stratified sample in order for the
researcher to make sound generalizations
from the data (see slide 33).
Collecting Data

Three basic ways (yet not limited to only
three) of gathering data in sociological
research:
 Asking people questions – Survey
 Observing behavior – Participant
Observation
 Analyzing existing materials and
records – Secondary Analysis and
Document Analysis
Analyzing Data
Before analyzing the data and after
it is collected, it must also be
classified or coded.
 When looking over the data
collected, the researcher is looking
to see whether or not the identified
hypotheses are supported.

Stating Findings and
Conclusions



Regardless of whether the sample was of a
large size or the hypotheses were supported,
the findings of the research should be written
up and reported.
The researcher will reflect on whether the
methods used were adequate, were there
limitations in the study, and in what ways were
the hypotheses accepted, rejected, or modified.
By making the information public, it makes it
possible for others to duplicate the research,
conduct a slightly different study, or proceed in
a very different direction.
Using the Research Model

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Although most sociologists follow the
model, they do not do so mechanically.
They may also conduct exploratory
studies prior to stating hypotheses or
before developing research designs.
They may also alter their hypotheses and
research designs as their investigation is
in process.
Questions for Consideration
What were the findings of
this research?
 What methods were employed in
this research?
 How can you apply any or all of
the three sociological theoretical
approaches to the data found in
this study?

Science as a Source of
Knowledge



Science is based on principles of objectivity
and verifiability.
Objectivity – scientists are expected to
prevent their personal biases from
influencing the interpretation of their results
(Weber’s concept verstehen). Data is to be
interpreted on the basis of merit.
Verifiability – a study can be repeated by
others. This exposes one work to critical
analysis, retesting, and revision by
colleagues.
Causation and Scientific
Logic
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Causation – events occur in predictable,
nonrandom ways, and one event leads to
another.
Political scientist Leo Rosten wrote “If an
explanation relies on a single cause, it is
surely wrong.” Therefore scientists are
guided by multiple causation.
Multiple Causation – an event occurs as
a result of several factors operating in
combination.
Causation and Variables

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Variable - a characteristic that is
subject to change (e.g., age, education,
social class).
Quantitative Variable – a variable that
can be measured and given numerical
value (e.g., individuals, groups, objects).
Qualitative Variable – variation in kind
versus in numerical degree (e.g., sex,
marital status).
Questions for Consideration


Since answers to these questions could be
used to classify people into one of two
categories, which category would you be in?
• People who place a high value on
education
• People who place a low value on
education
Can you identify other categories that could
be qualified from these questions?
Other Types of Variables

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Independent Variables – variables that
cause something to occur.
Dependent Variables – variables which a
change (or effect) can be observed or you
expect to observe.
Independent variables usually when
introduced cause the dependent variable
to change.
Intervening Variables – influences the
relationship between an independent
variable and dependent variable.
Correlational Relationships

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Correlation – when one variable changes
another or several other variable changes
(either negatively or positively).
Positive Correlation – when both the
independent and dependent variable(s)
change in the same direction.
Negative Correlation – independent
and dependent variable(s) change in
opposite directions (when one goes up
the other goes down).
Positive and Negative
Correlations
Criteria For a Cause-andEffect Relationship
1.
2.
3.
Two variables must be correlated.
All possible contaminating factors
must be taken into account.
A change in the independent
variable must occur before a
change in the dependent variable
can occur.
Application of the Causal
Relationship Criteria

Refer to “Using the Sociological Imagination”
from the beginning of the chapter.
1.
Two variables must be correlated – Some
researchers found that juvenile delinquency
increases as church attendance declines.
Application of the Causal
Relationship Criteria – Cont.
2.
All possible contaminating factors must
be taken into account – the negative
relationship between church attendance and
delinquency occurs because age is related
to both church attendance and delinquency.
We need to take all variables relevant to
the relationship. The age variable reveals
that the relationship between church
attendance and delinquency is not a causal
one. Church attendance is the
contaminating factor here.
Application of the Causal
Relationship Criteria – Cont.
3.
A change in the independent variable
must occur before a change in the
dependent variable can occur – cause
must occur before effect. In this case, it
cannot be determined which occurred first:
church attendance or delinquency. Causality
between these two variables cannot be
established.
The Experiment as a Model
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Experiments illustrate causation.
Experiment – takes place in a laboratory
in an attempt to eliminate all possible
contaminating influences. This allows the
researcher to determine the effects of an
independent variable on a dependent
variable.
Basic ingredients = pretest, posttest, an
experimental variable, an experimental
group, and a control group.
Experiment as a Model – Cont.

Conventional method for controlling the
influence of contaminating variables is to
select a control group as well as an
experimental group.

Experimental Group – group exposed to
the experimental variable.

Control Group – group not exposed to the
experimental variable.
Experiment as a Model – Cont.

Matching is done to make the groups
comparable – participants are matched
in pairs.

Randomization (preferable to matching)
– subjects are assigned to the
experimental or control group on a
random (chance) basis.
Quantitative Research
Methods
Quantitative research uses
numerical data.
 Such methods include survey
research and precollected data
(secondary research).
 About 90% of the research
published in major sociological
journals is based on surveys.

Surveys
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People are asked to respond to a series of
questions by mail, email, face-to-face,
and/or by telephone.
Questionnaires are written and interviews
are questions asked by an interviewer.
Ideal for studying large numbers of people.
Representative samples are selected.
Include many variables.
Relatively precise.
Permit the comparison of responses.
Surveys – Cont.
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Random sample – a sample of the
population where every member of the
population has equal opportunity of being
selected for inclusion in the sample.
Stratified random sample – population is
divided into categories such as sex, age,
race; subjects are then selected randomly
from each category. This is to ensure the
proportion of persons in a given category
reflects the population at large.
Survey Questions
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Close-ended Questions – limited,
predetermined set of answers are provided
(i.e., multiple choice). May fail to elicit the
participants underlying attitudes and
opinions.
Open-ended Questions – asks the
respondent to answer in his or her own
words. Not always easy to quantify.
Double-barreled Questions – posing more
than one question, therefore confusing the
data and/or the respondent.
Precollected data
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Known a secondary analysis.
Permits high quality research.
Low cost.
Reveals changes in variables over an
extended period of time.
Sources include government reports,
company records, voting records, prison
records, and reports from research done
by others.
Precollected Data: Advantages
& Disadvantages


Advantages
 Permit the study of issue over time.
 Researcher cannot influence the answers.
Disadvantages
 Existing information may not exactly suit
current researcher’s needs.
 People who originally collected the data
may have been biased.
 May be too old to be valid.
Qualitative Research
Methods
Qualitative research methods
include field research and the
subjective approach.
 Qualitative research relies heavily
on descriptive data.

Qualitative Research Methods
– Cont.
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Field research – investigates aspects of
social life that cannot be measured
quantitatively and that are best understood
within a natural setting. Assumes findings in
one case can be generalized to similar
situations.
Case study – thorough investigation of a
single group, incident, or community.
Accomplished primarily through intensive
observation, information obtained from
informants, and informal interviews.
Qualitative Research Methods
– Cont.

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Participant observation – researcher
becomes a member of the group being
studied (as in the video about the
homeless in NY).
Classic participant observation studies:
 Elliott Liebow – Street Corner Society
 John Howard Griffin – Black Like Me
Advantages of Field Studies
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Field studies can produce a depth and
breadth of understanding unattainable
with quantitative methods.
Can reveal insights from the people
involved.
Valuable where survey research methods
would be either impossible or biased.
Disadvantages of Field Studies
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Findings from one case may not be
generalizable to similar situations.
Possibility of bias of field researcher;
researcher often has to rely on personal
judgment and interpretation.
Lack of objectivity and standardized research
procedures makes it difficult for other
researchers to replicate.
Subjective Approach
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Subjective approach studies an aspect of
human social behavior by ascertaining
the interpretations of the participants
themselves.
A prominent example of this approach is
ethnomethodology, which attempts to
uncover the taken-for-granted social
routines.
Ethnomethodology
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…the study of the processes people
develop and use in understanding the
routine behaviors expected of themselves
and others in everyday life.
Ethnomethodologists assume that people
share the meanings that underlie much of
their everyday behavior.
Ethnomethodology – Cont.
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Harold Garfinkel is a prominent advocate of
ethnomethodology.
Garfinkel believes the best way to
understand people’s construction of social
reality is to deprive them momentarily of
their mental maps of daily routines –
upsetting the apple cart.
Ethnomethodologists can learn by observing
the process of reconstruction.
Focus on Theoretical
Perspectives
Ethics and Sociological
Research

Sociologists are committed to:
 Objectivity
 Highest technical research standards
 Accurate reporting of methods
and findings
 Protection of the rights, privacy,
integrity, dignity, and autonomy of the
subjects of their research.
Ethics in Sociological
Research – Cont.
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The code is concerned with maximizing the
benefits of sociology to society and
minimizing the harm that sociological work
might create.
Several eminent social scientists have been
criticized for conducting research that many
scientists consider unethical. Subjects were
placed in stressful situations without being
informed of the true nature of the
experiment: Milgram 1963, 1965, 1974 &
Zimbardo et al 1981
ASA Code of Ethics

Link to the American Sociological
Association Code of Ethics
http://www.asanet.org/galleries/def
ault-file/Code%20of%20Ethics.pdf
Sociology & You

As a consumer of information, there are
some easy steps you can follow that will
make you a savvy consumer of information:
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Be Skeptical – be suspicious of what you
read or hear
Consider the Information Source
Do Not Mistake Correlations for Causation
A Final Note

To help ensure one’s study produces
knowledge that is superior to that
yielded by intuition, common sense,
authority, or tradition, a researcher
must pay careful attention to the
quality of measurement.
Reliability
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…a measurement technique that yields
consistent results on repeated
application.
Reliability is tested by repeated
administration of the technique.
Problem of reliability is an issue in
qualitative research due to the difficulty
of repeatability.
Although reliable, it may not produce
sound results.
Validity

…exists when a measurement
technique actually measures what it
is designed to measure.
Self-corrective Nature of
Research
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It is partially through replication that
scientific knowledge accumulates and
changes over time.
A major goal of scientific research is to
generate knowledge that is more reliable
than can be obtained from such nonscientific
sources as intuition, common sense,
authority, and tradition.
Through efforts to be objective and
replicable, researchers attempt to portray
reality as accurately as possible.
Questions for Consideration


Do you think that a selected sample of three
thousand individuals could yield an accurate
picture of leisure habits of Americans? Why
or why not?
Pretend you are a sociologist studying the
relationship between the receipt of welfare
payments and commitment to working.
Describe the research method you would
select, and discuss why it is the most
appropriate to this topic.