Download Discussion: What is Sociological Theory? Why do we need it?

The Relation of theory to
research 1/15
The example of the Freedom
battery from the General
Social Survey
Theory
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Research
The central idea of the course is that
there is a dialectical or reciprocal
relation between theory and research:
Theory
Research
• Valid and useful theory must have
empirical research implications
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Research
Theory
• Valid and useful empirical research must
be motivated by theory and have
theoretical implications.
Theory
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Research
Theoretical considerations play the dominant
role in the formulation and interpretation of
any data.
The facts never speak for themselves.
Data without theory are dumb.
The role of theory includes:
conceptualization of measures, the causal
order and other forces that may be involved,
interpretation of the finding, and
generalization to other cases.
What about serendipity?
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Sometimes important discoveries
have been made by theorists who did
not expect that particular finding.
E.g. Penicillin from moldy bread.
And that is one of the reasons that
empirical research is always
indispensible.
But there were also many theoretical
preconditions of the discovery of
Penicillin
Research
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Theory
Empirical research is basic to any science.
“Theories” that do not have a rich and varied
set of researchable implications are merely
ways of talking about reality; they do not
involve assertions about reality.
Most sociologists correctly regard them as
meaningless and empty.
Theories without data are blind.
The role of data includes: modification and
clarification of theories as well as decisions
between competing theories.
An example: Sources and nature of
the value of freedom
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O. Patterson argues that freedom is
a core value of the west, particularly
the United States.
Thus the view that some set of
arrangements or actions involves or
promotes freedom has consequences
But Freedom is a complex value.
Different people have different views
and concepts that need investigation.
Patterson’s concept of the three
notes in the “chord” of freedom:
1.
2.
3.

Freedom-from: The rights of individuals and
groups not to have others or the
government constrain them from doing what
they wish.
Freedom-to: Providing the actual
wherewithall for individuals or groups to
actually do what they wish
Freedom-with: The ability to influence and
initiate collective action
The three notes are in tension with each
other.
The basic paradox or dialectic of
freedom, according to Patterson:
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Freedom comes from slavery
• The main societies that have engendered
the value have been slave societies.
• The main groups that have promoted the
value have been slaves (or threatened
with slavery)
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But slavery is pervasive
And the value of freedom is unusual
Why did it not become a core value
outside of the modern West?
1.
Slaves aspired for freedom, but
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2.
They had no power.
Freedom for one person did not imply freedom for
another.
Indeed the conditions of an inclusive “social
horizon” are rare.
Freedom was seen as a good thing but
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Particularistic social ties were indispensable
Freedom was “Jumping from a slave ship into
shark infested water.”
Christianity and Freedom

Patterson argues that Christianity
played a fundamental role in
institutionalizing freedom as a value.
• Paul made redemption from spiritual
slavery the fundamental promise.
• Augustine developed that idea.
• But this involved a kind of freedom that
coexisted happily with slavery for
thousands of years.
Empirical analysis of the value
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The Patterson battery on the last
General Social Survey will
familiarize us with:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The GSS
Cross tabulation
Samples and populations.
Theoretical interpretation.
Consider the following variables
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Gender (male)
Race (white)
How Free (Believes that Americans today
have “complete” or “a great deal”
Free Now (Believes that Americans today
have more freedom than in past
Wlth Pov (Agrees or strongly agrees that “In
a free society, it is alright if a few people
accumulate a lot of wealth and property
while many others live in poverty.”)
Formulate hypotheses on:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Gender
Gender
Gender
Race
Race
Race
Wlth Pov
How Free -- - 0 + ++
Free Now -- - 0 + ++
Wlth Pov -- - 0 + ++
How Free -- - 0 + ++
Free Now -- - 0 + ++
Wlth Pov -- - 0 + ++
How Free -- - 0 + ++