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Society: the basics
Eleventh Edition
CHAPTER
15
Population,
Urbanization, and
Environment
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Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Population, Urbanization, and
Environment
• Why should we worry about the rapid rate
of global population increase?
• How do city and rural living differ?
• How is the condition of the natural
environment a social issue?
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Demography: The Study of
Population
• Demography
– The study of human population
• Fertility
– The incidence of childbearing in a country’s
population
• Crude birth rate
– The number of live births in a given year for
every 1,000 people in a population
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Demography: The Study of
Population
• Mortality
– The incidence of death in a country’s
population
• Crude death rate
– The number of deaths in a given year for
every 1,000 people in a population
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Demography: The Study of
Population
• Infant mortality rate
– The number of deaths among infants under
one year of age for each 1,000 live births in a
given year
• Life expectancy
– The average life span of a country’s
population
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Demography: The Study of
Population
• Migration
– The movement of people into and out of a
specified territory
– Immigration
 In-migration rate
– Number of people entering an area for every 1,000 people
in the population
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Demography: The Study of
Population
• Migration (continued)
– Emigration
 Out-migration rate
– The number of people leaving for every 1,000 people
– Both types usually happen at once
 Push-pull factors
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Population Growth
• Affected by fertility, mortality, and
migration
• Population growth of U.S. and other highincome nations is well below world
average
• Highest growth region is Africa
– Troubling because these countries can barely
support existing populations
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Population Composition
• Sex ratio
– The number of males for every 100 females in
a nation’s population
• Age-sex pyramid
– A graphic representation of the age and sex
of a population
 Lower-income nations are wide at the bottom
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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History and Theory
of Population Growth
• Malthusian theory
– Rapid population increase would lead to
social chaos
– Geometric progression of population
 Doubling of population (2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.)
– Arithmetic progression of food production
 Limited farmland (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.)
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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History and Theory
of Population Growth
• Malthusian theory (continued)
– Reproduction beyond what the planet could
feed
– Birth control and sex abstention might change
prediction
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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History and Theory
of Population Growth
• CRITICAL REVIEW
• Prediction flawed
– Birth rate began to drop with industrialization
– Underestimated human ingenuity
• Ignored the role of social inequality in
world abundance and famine
• Lesson:
– Habitable land, clean water, fresh air are
limited resources
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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History and Theory
of Population Growth
• Demographic transition theory
– Links population patterns to a society’s level
of technological development
– What are the four stages of demographic
transition theory?
– Stage 1 – Pre-industrial agrarian societies
 High birth rate, high death rate
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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History and Theory
of Population Growth
• Demographic transition theory
(continued)
– Stage 2 – Industrialization
 Death rate falls, birth rates remain high
– Stage 3 – Mature industrial economy
 Birth rate drops, death rate drops
– Stage 4 – Postindustrial economy
 Demographic transition complete
 Low-birth rate, steady death rate
 Japan, Europe, and the U.S.
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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History and Theory
of Population Growth
• CRITICAL REVIEW
– Linked to modernization theory
 Optimism that poor countries will solve their
population problems as they industrialize
– Dependency theorists
 Unless there is redistribution of global resources...
– Division into affluent enjoying low population growth
– Poor struggling to feed more and more people
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Global Population Today: A Brief
Survey
• The low-growth north
– Zero population growth
 The level of reproduction that maintains population
at a steady level
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Global Population Today: A Brief
Survey
• The low-growth north (continued)
– What factors repress population?
 High proportion of men and women in labor force
 Rising costs of raising children
 Trends toward later marriage
 Singlehood
 Wide use of contraceptives
– Concern for under-population
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Global Population Today: A Brief
Survey
• High-growth south
– Population is critical problem in poor
southern-hemisphere nations
– Advanced medical technology provided by
rich nations has lowered death rate
 Poor societies account for 2/3 of world’s population
 To limit population increase births must be
controlled as successfully as death
– With global population increasing, would you
support a one-child policy? Why or why not?
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Urbanization: The Growth of
Cities
• Urbanization
– The concentration of population into cities
– The first cities
 First urban revolution
– Preindustrial European cities
– Industrial European cities
 Second urban revolution
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John J. Macionis
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The Growth of U.S. Cities
• Colonial settlements, 1565-1800
• Urban expansion, 1800-1860
• The metropolitan era, 1860-1950
– Metropolis
 A large city that socially and economically
dominates an urban area
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John J. Macionis
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The Growth of U.S. Cities
• Urban decentralization, 1950-present
– Occurred as people left downtown areas for
outlying suburbs
 Urban areas beyond the political boundaries of a
city
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Suburbs and Urban Decline
• Loss of higher-income taxpayers to
suburbs
– Cities struggled to pay for expensive social
programs for the poor
• Cities fell into crisis leading to inner-city
decay
• Decline in the importance of public space
• Spread of TV, internet, and other media
people can use without leaving home
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Postindustrial Sun Belt Cities
and Sprawl
• 60% of U.S. population lives in sunbelt
cities
– Los Angeles, Houston
• What are some of the drawbacks of urban
sprawl?
– Growth follows no plan
– Traffic congestion
– Poorly planned housing developments
– Overcrowded schools
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Megalopolis: The Regional City
• Megalopolis
– A vast urban region containing a number of
cities and their surrounding suburbs
– Metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs)
 One city with 50,000 or more people
– Micropolitan statistical areas
 Urban areas with at least one city with 10,000 to
50,000 people
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Megalopolis: The Regional City
• Megalopolis (continued)
– Core-based statistical areas (CBSAs)
 Include metropolitan and micropolitan areas
 New York and adjacent urban areas
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John J. Macionis
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Megalopolis: The Regional City
• Edge Cities
– Business centers some distance from the old
downtowns
– No clear physical boundaries
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John J. Macionis
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Megalopolis: The Regional City
• The rural rebound
– 3/4 of rural communities across the U.S.
gained population
– Scenic and recreational attractions
– Companies relocating to rural communities
 Increased economic opportunities for rural
populations
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Urbanism as a Way of Life
• Gemeinschaft
– A type of social organization in which people
are closely tied by kinship and tradition
• Gesellschaft
– A type of social organization in which people
come together only on the basis of individual
self-interest
– Motivated by own needs rather than desire to
help improve the well-being of everyone
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Urbanism as a Way of Life
• How might Tonnies explain social patterns
such as our high rate of divorce,
widespread fear of crime, and incidents of
“road rage” on the highways?
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Mechanical and Organic
Solidarity
• Emile Durkheim
• Mechanical solidarity
– Social bonds based on common sentiments
and shared moral values
– Similar to Gemeinschaft
• Organic solidarity
– Social bonds based on specialization and
interdependence
– Similar to Gesellschaft
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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The Blasé Urbanite
• Georg Simmel
• Tuning out much of what goes on around
one
• City dwellers keep distance as a survival
strategy
• How would Simmel explain cases of
people turning away from others in need of
the grounds that they simply “don’t want to
get involved”?
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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The Chicago School: Robert Park
and Louis Wirth
• City is a living organism – a human
kaleidoscope
• Define the city as a setting with a large,
dense, and socially diverse population
– City dwellers know others not in terms of
 Who they are but what they do
• Impersonal nature of urban relationships
with greater diversity makes city dwellers
more tolerant than rural villagers
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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The Chicago School: Robert Park
and Louis Wirth
• CRITICAL REVIEW
– Overlook the effects of class, race, and
gender
– Many kinds of urbanites
– Of the urban sociologists presented, which
were more positive about urban life? Which
were more negative? In each case, explain
why.
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Urban Ecology
• The study of the link between the physical
and social dimensions of cities
• Concentric zones
• Wedge-shaped sectors
• Multicentered model
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John J. Macionis
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Urban Ecology
• Social area analysis
– Households with fewer children cluster
towards city’s center
– Social class differences are responsible for
sector-shaped districts
– Racial and ethnic neighborhoods consistent
with multi-centered model
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John J. Macionis
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Urban Political Economy
• Urban political-economy model
– Applies Marx’s analysis of conflict in the
workplace to conflict in the city
• Political economists reject ecological
approach of city as a natural organism
– See city life as defined by people with power
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Urban Political Economy
• CRITICAL REVIEW
– Focus on U.S. cities during a limited period of
history
– Unlikely any single model can account for full
range of urban diversity
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John J. Macionis
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Urbanization in Poor Nations
• Two revolutionary expansion of cities in
world history
– First began about 8000 B.C.E.
– Second began in 1750 and lasted two
centuries
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John J. Macionis
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Urbanization in Poor Nations
• Third urban revolution is under way
– Result of many poor nations entering highgrowth stage 2 of demographic transitions
theory
– Cities offer more opportunities than rural
areas
 Provide no quick fix for problems of escalating
population and grinding poverty
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Environment and Society
• Ecology
– The study of the interaction of living
organisms and the natural environment
• Natural environment
– Earth’s surface and atmosphere, including
living organisms, air, water, soil, and other
resources necessary to sustain life
• Why do you think that sociologists are
interested in the environment?
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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The Global Dimension
• Ecosystem
– A system composed of the interaction of all
living organisms and their natural environment
• Why must the natural environment be
studied with a global perspective?
• Change in any part of the natural
environment affects the entire global
ecosystem
– The ecological viewpoint of the hamburger
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Technology and the
Environmental Deficit
• I=PAT
– Environmental impact (I) reflects a society’s
population (P), its level of affluence (A), and
its level of technology (T).
• Societies at intermediate stages of
sociocultural evolution have somewhat
greater capacity to affect the environment
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Technology and the
Environmental Deficit
• Environmental impact of industrial
technology goes beyond energy
consumption
• Environmental Deficit
– Profound long-term harm to the natural
environment caused by humanity’s focus on
short-term material affluence
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Technology and the
Environmental Deficit
• Environmental concerns are sociological
• Environmental damage to air, land, or
water is unintended
• Environmental deficit is reversible
– Societies create environmental problems
– Societies can undo many of them
• Do you think that environmental study
should be a part of the curriculum of every
school in the country? Why or why not?
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Culture: Growth and Limits
• The logic of growth
– Material comfort, progress, science
• Holds that more powerful technology has
improved lives and new discoveries will
continue to do so in the future
• Progress can lead to unexpected
problems
– Strain on the environment
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John J. Macionis
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Culture: Growth and Limits
• Environmentalists
– Logic of growth flawed
– Assumes natural resources will always be
plentiful
• Can you identify ways in which the mass
media and our popular culture encourage
people to support the logic of growth?
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Culture: Growth and Limits
• The limits of growth
– Cannot invent our way out of the problems
created by growth
– Growth must have limits
• Humanity must enact policies to control
population increase, pollution, and use of
resources to avoid environmental collapse
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Culture: Growth and Limits
• Shares Malthus’s pessimism about the
future
• What policies would you propose to
control the threat of population growth?
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John J. Macionis
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Solid Waste: The Disposable
Society
• Do you think having more, in a
materialistic sense, is the path to personal
happiness?
• The U.S. has a disposable society
– Consumes more products than virtually any
other nation on earth
– Countless items are designed to be
disposable
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John J. Macionis
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Solid Waste: The Disposable
Society
• The U.S. has a disposable society
(continued)
– Wealthy society consumes hundreds of times
more energy, plastics, lumber, and other
resources
– 80% never goes away
 Ends up in landfills
 Can pollute groundwater
– Recycling – reuse of resources
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Solid Waste: The Disposable
Society
• Water and air
– Hydrologic cycle
 Planet naturally recycles water and refreshes the
land
– Two major concerns
 Supply and pollution
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John J. Macionis
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Solid Waste: The Disposable
Society
• Water supply
– 1% is suitable for drinking
– Water rights prominent in laws around the
world
– Rising population and development greatly
increase world’s needs for water
– Water is a valuable and finite resource
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Solid Waste: The Disposable
Society
• Do you think that water needs for future
generations are ensured? What will we do
if the answer turns out to be no?
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John J. Macionis
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Solid Waste: The Disposable
Society
• Water pollution
– In large cities, people have no choice but to
drink contaminated water
– Quality in U.S. good by global standards
– Special problem is acid rain
 Rain made acidic by air pollution that destroys
plant and animal life
– Global phenomenon
 Regions that suffer might be thousands of miles
from source of the pollution
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John J. Macionis
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Solid Waste: The Disposable
Society
• Air pollution
– Americans more aware of air pollution than
contaminated water
– Air quality improved in the final decades of the
20th century
– Wealthy nations passed laws banning highpollution heating
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John J. Macionis
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Solid Waste: The Disposable
Society
• Air pollution (continued)
– Why is air pollution such a serious problem in
poor nations? Should the U.S. be
concerned? And if so, what should be done?
 Reliance on coal, wood, peat, or other “dirty” fuels
for heating
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Rain Forests
• Regions of dense forestation, most of
which circle the globe close to the
equator
– Largest in south America, west-central Africa,
and southeast Asia
– 7% of Earth’s total land surface
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Rain Forests
• Losing rainforests to hardwood trade
– How do rich nations contribute to the
destruction of the rain forests?
 Love parquet floors, fine furniture, fancy paneling,
weekend yachts, and high-grade coffins
– No rainforests – no protection of Earth’s
biodiversity and climate
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Global Warming
• A rise in Earth’s average temperature
due to an increasing concentration of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
– Carbon dioxide increasing while amount of
plant life on Earth is shrinking
– Rainforests being destroyed by burning
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Global Warming
• Global warming is a problem that
threatens the future for all
• Have you experienced changes in your
own world resulting from global warming?
Explain.
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John J. Macionis
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Declining Biodiversity
• Clearing rainforests reduces earth’s
biodiversity
• Rainforests home to almost half of planet’s
living species
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John J. Macionis
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Declining Biodiversity
• Why should we be concerned about the
destruction of the rainforests?
– Biodiversity provides a varied source of
human food
– Biodiversity is a vital genetic resource used by
medical and pharmaceutical researchers
– Beauty and complexity of natural environment
are diminished
– Extinction of any species is irreversible and
final
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John J. Macionis
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Environmental Racism
• Patterns that make environmental
hazards greatest for poor people,
especially minorities
• Where do the people who own the
factories live in relationship to the
factories? Where do the people who work
in the factories live in relationship to the
factories? What accounts for this pattern?
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Environmental Racism
• Factories that spew pollution stood near
neighborhoods housing poor and people
of color
– Poor drawn to factories for work
– Low incomes led to affordable housing in
undesirable neighborhoods
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Toward a Sustainable Society
and World
• Ecologically sustainable culture
– A way of life that meets the needs of the
present generation without threatening the
environmental legacy of future generations
• Three strategies
– Bring population growth under control
– Conserve finite resources
– Reduce waste
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Toward a Sustainable Society
and World
• Dinosaurs dominated for 160 million years
• Humanity is far younger
– 250,000 years
• Compared to dinosaurs, humans have the
great gift of intelligence
• What are the chances that humans will
continue to flourish 160 million years or
even 1,000 years from now?
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
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Toward a Sustainable Society
and World
• Make five predictions about the state of
the world population and also the state of
the planet’s environment fifty years from
now. Are you optimistic or pessimistic?
Society: the basics, Eleventh Edition
John J. Macionis
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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