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RESEARCH METHODS Research Methods: Procedures designed to establish facts about the social world. Please Note: This section is not from the book. Take Notes. SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE Tradition: Received Wisdom, part of cultural heritage; Common sense, “gut feeling” Authority: Speaking as a result of status as “expert” Guard against, the “expert” speaking outside his or her Area of expertise. The “expert” is not infallible. Personal Experience: It must be true because “I experienced” such and so. VERSUS SCIENCE 1. Systematic+ 2. Logical framework+ 3. Empirical Evidence+ 4. Falsification A system of checks and balances to extract truth. Fallacies of Thinking 1. Inaccurate Observation Casual versus systematic Observation Using instruments that guard against inaccuracy 2. Over-generalization One or a few cases is representative of the whole Choose large sample, randomly; replicate study 3.Selective Observation Observation that fits in with your biases 4.Ecological Fallacy (Ecological refers to things bigger than the individual, like groups and systems) Concluding what is characteristic of a group is characteristic of every single individual 5.Reductionism Explaining a variety of complex events or behaviors by a single or narrow set of causes E.g.: Psychiatric Reductionism Scientific Generalizing VS Stereotype Scientific Generalizing is: 1. 2. 3. 4. Systematic Logical Empirical Falsifiable Stereotyping is: 1. 2. Casual Doesn’t guard against fallacies of thinking. Types of Research 1. Cross Sectional Covers the entire spectrum at one point in time. E.g. US Census Data 2. Longitudinal Studies changes in a population over time a) Trend Studies: Changes in the population over time b) Cohort: Changes in a cohort (sub population over time. c) Panel Studies: Changes in the same sample of the population (the panel) over time. Quantitative VS Qualitative I. Quantitative: measuring with numbers Used in the Positivistic school in sociology: A school that seeks scientific measurement to extract laws about the social worldnumbers are then used with statistical techniques II. Qualitative: your interpretation/description of what you observe Max Weber: Versthein: understanding Understanding why a behavior occurred from the perspective of the actor. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH Exploratory: To find out more about something Descriptive: Detailed description of a social phenomena (who, what, where, when, how) Explanatory: To establish causation, one thing causing another- answers the question WHY. Types of EXPLANATION Idiographic (from Idio meaning unique e.g. idiosyncrasy) Seeks to explain a social event by an exhaustive set of unique causes- seeks total explanation, all causes Nomothetic Seeks to explain a social event by narrowing down causes to a few. Social Research is Probabilistic Social Empirical Research does not establish 100% causation, rather it is PROBABILISTIC i.e X does not cause Y 100%; Rather we say X will probably cause Y, other things being equal (Ceteris Paribus) Causation is probabilistic because it depends on many factors and their combination Quantum Physics VS Newtonian Physics.. Objectivity VS. Subjectivity Max Weber: Value-Free social research. Objective: Uniform application of standards to phenomena. Inter-subjective- shared understanding Subjective: Arbitrary application of standards to phenomena. Subjectivity reveals Ulterior Motive. Subjectivity and Propaganda. CONCEPTS A concept is a mental construct that represents some part of the world in simplified form E.g. Gender VARIABLES Variables are concepts whose values can vary. 1= Constant X= 1,2,3……. I.E. Variable Variables are either: 1. Independent: the one that causes the change 2. Dependant: the one in which change is caused. Measurement Procedure designed to ascertain the value of a variable in a specific case Variables have attributes, e.g. Gender can be male (attribute) or female (attribute) Some variables cannot be measured directly. They are measured through indicators e.g. Religiosity When you specify the indicator you are going to use to measure the variable, it is called OPERATIONALIZATION. Reliability & Validity Measurements should be 1. Reliable- consistency in measurementobjective 2. Valid- you are measuring what you are supposed to measure. Attributes of Variables Variables are composed of Attributes E.g. Religiosity can have the attributes a. Very Religious b. Religious c. Not Religious etc; Hypothesis A carefully formulated statement that can be verified or discarded after examination of the data. Theory A set of statements that explains or predicts social life Mills: Research without a connecting theory are mere bits of information Theory without Research is mere speculation. TWO TYPES OF THEORY DEDUCTIVE THEORY From the General to the Specific Theory, Research, Confirmation or Rejection INDUCTIVE THEORYFrom the Specific to the General Also called Grounded Theory Theory formation is an On going process. DISCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Tools of summarizing your reporting. Sociologists deal with thousands and even millions of cases, to make sense of our description we need to present some average of the observations, e.g. age, income etc. 1. Mean: arithmetic average 2. Median: Divides the distribution in half 3. Mode: The single score that occurs the most. Correlation & Causation Correlation: A relationship in which two variables move together e.g. X changes and Y changes (together) Causation: A relationship in which the change in one variable causes a change in the other X changes which causes Y to change Correlation is not Causation. When Correlation is mistaken as Causation it is called a SPURIOUS relationship. Usually means that a third (intervening) variable is causing the movement in both variables. Conditions for Establishing Causation 1.Two variables must be correlated (means when one changes the other should change as well) 2.The cause (independent variable) must precede the effect (dependant variable) in timealso known as direction of determination. 3.There is no evidence that the relationship is spurious Things from this section to learn for the first exam Definition of Science Difference Between Generalizing and Stereotyping Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Study Objectivity Versus Subjectivity Deductive Versus Inductive Theory Correlation Versus Causation Conditions for Establishing Causation. Mills’s comment on Theory & Research.