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Reasons for reviewing the literature • Informing your self of what is happening in the field • Gaining a level of topical and methodological knowledge and expertise Purposes of the ‘literature review’ • Informing your audience of what is happening in the field. • Establishing your credibility as a knowledgeable and capable researcher Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 1 • Finding potential gaps in the literature that may point to potential research questions • Critically evaluating common/typical methods • Arguing the relevance and the significance of your research question(s) • Providing the context for your own methodological approach Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 2 • Facilitating the development of your own methodological approaches • Arguing the relevance and appropriateness of your approach Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 3 The writing process • • • • • • • • Read good, relevant reviews Write critical annotations as you go Develop a structure Write purposefully Use the literature to back up your arguments Make doing the literature review an ongoing process Get plenty of feedback Be prepared to redraft Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 4 The role of the researcher • Theorist – analyze critically and think abstractly and attempt to develop understandings that lie outside the dominant paradigm. • Scientist – removed, precise, methodical, logical, highly trained and in control of the research process. • Change agent – acknowledges subjectivies and works to better a situation based on those subjectivities Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 5 • Bricoleur: methods are emergent and dependent upon the question and context. • Choreographer: begins with a foundation of key principles, has vision and tries not to have a limited view. Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 6 Who, where, when, how and what • Who – do you want to be able to speak about, who do you plan to speak/observe • Where – what is the physical domain of the sample, are settings relevant to the credibility of your methods? • When – do your methods fit into your time frame, is timing relevant to the credibility of your methods? • How will you collect data and conduct methods? • What will you look for, what will you ask? Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 7 Hypothesis • Logical conjecture (hunch or educated guess) about the nature of relationships between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 8 A hypothesis may not be appropriate if • You do not have a hunch or educated guess about a particular situation • You do not have a set of defined variables • Your question centres on phenomenological description • Your question centers on ethnographic study of a cultural group • Your aim is to engage in, and research, the process of collaborative change Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 9 Keeping a sense of the overall • • • • • • • • • How should I treat my data in order to best address my research question? What do I expect to find? What don’t I expect to find, and how can I look for it? How do my findings relate to my research question? Are my findings confirming my theories? How? Why? Why not? Does my theory inform/help to explain my findings? In what ways? Can my unexpected findings link with alternate theories? How might my methodological shortcomings be affecting my findings? Can my findings be interpreted in alternate ways? What are the implications? Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 10 Variables • Understanding the nature of variables is essential to statistical analysis. Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 11 WHAT DEPENDS ON WHAT? • Dependent variables – the things you are trying to study or what you are trying to measure. • Independent variables – What might be causing an effect on the things you are trying to understand. Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 12 Measurement scales • Nominal – Numbers are arbitrarily assigned to represent categories. They are a coding scheme and have no numerical significance. The main purpose of nominal data is to allow researchers to tally respondents in order to understand population distributions. Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 13 • Ordinal – This scale ranks categories in a meaningful way – there is an order to the coding. The Likert-type scale in which respondents are asked to select a response on a point scale is often used. Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 14 • Interval – In addition to ordering data this scale uses equidistant units to measure the difference between scores. • Ratio – Not only is each point on a ratio scale equidistant there is also an absolute zero. Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 15 What is the ‘average’ the ‘central tendency’ of the data? Three ways to measure central tendency: • Mode: Most common value/s noted for a variable. • Median: Mid point of a range by arranging values in an ascending or descending order. • Mean: the mathematical average – add the values for each case and divide by the number of cases. Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 16 • Mode, median, mean • Standard deviation Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 17 Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 18 Skewed Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 19 Measuring dispersion Say you had a group of students with IQs of 100, 100, 95 and 105 and another group with IQs of 60, 140, 65, 135, the central tendency of both would be 100 but dispersion around the man will require you to work with each group of students quite differently. Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Mumbai 20