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Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
Such study has, broadly speaking, three aspects:
 language form,
 language meaning,
 language in context
Linguistics analyzes human language as a system
for relating sounds or signed gestures and meaning
Phonetics
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises
the study of the sounds of human speech, or—in the
case of sign languages—the equivalent aspects of sign.
It is concerned with the physical properties of speech
sounds or signs their physiological production,
acoustic properties, auditory perception, and
neurophysiological status. Phonology, on the other
hand, is concerned with the abstract, grammatical
characterization of systems of sounds or signs.
Phonetics
The field of phonetics is a multilayered subject of linguistics that
focuses on speech. In the case of oral languages there are three basic
areas of study:
 Articulatory Phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds
by the articulatory and vocal tract by the speaker.
 Acoustic Phonetics: the study of the physical transmission of speech
sounds from the speaker to the listener.
 Auditory Phonetics: the study of the reception and perception of
speech sounds by the listener.
These areas are inter-connected through the common mechanism of
sound, such as wavelength (pitch), amplitude, and harmonics.
Organs Of Speech
Phonetic symbols for vowels
Phonetic symbols for consonants
Diphthong
A diphthong, literally "two sounds" or "two tones",
also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent
vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable.
Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different
targets: that is, the tongue and/or other parts of the
speech apparatus moves during the pronunciation of
the vowel. For most dialects of English, the phrase "no
highway cowboys" contains five distinct diphthongs.
Phonetic symbols for Diphthong
Note-taking
Note-taking is the practice of recording information
captured from another source. By taking notes, the
writer records the essence of the information, freeing
their mind from having to recall everything. Notes are
commonly drawn from a transient source, such as an
oral discussion at a meeting, or a lecture (notes of a
meeting are usually called minutes), in which case the
notes may be the only record of the event. Note taking
is a form of self-discipline.
Linear note-taking
Outlines tend to proceed down a page, using headings and
bullets to structure information. A common system
consists of headings that use Roman numerals, letters of
the alphabet, and Arabic numerals at different levels. A
typical structure would be:
 I. First main topic
A. Subtopic
1. Detail
2. Detail
B. Subtopic
 II. Second main topic
A. Subtopic
Non-linear note-taking
There are many types of non-linear note-taking techniques,
including:
 Clustering
 Concept mapping
 Idea mapping
 Instant replays
 Knowledge maps
 Learning maps
 Mind mapping
 Model maps
 Pyramid principle
Note-making
Note making is an advanced writing skill
which is acquiring increasing importance
due to knowledge explosion. There is a need
to remember at least the main points of any
given subject. Making notes is a complex
activity which combines several skills.
How to make notes
Read the passage carefully.
 Heading
What is the main idea of the passage? Frame a heading
based on the central idea and write it in the middle of
the page.
 Subheadings
How has the main idea been presented and developed?
Are there two or three subordinate/associated ideas?
You can frame subheadings based on these.
How to make notes
 Points
Are there further details or points of the subtitles that you
wish to keep in these notes? Indent, i.e., suitably space
and number. All subheadings should be written at a
uniform distance from the margin.
 Indenting
All points should also maintain the same distance away
from the margin.
Note: Do not write full sentences. And use abbreviations
wherever necessary.
Bibliography
Bibliography as a discipline, is traditionally the academic
study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it
is also known as bibliology[.
Carter and Barker (2010) describe bibliography as a twofold
scholarly discipline—
 the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography)
 the systematic description of books as physical objects
(descriptive bibliography).
Dictionary
A dictionary is collection of words in one or more
specific languages, often listed alphabetically with
usage of information, definitions, etymologies,
phonetics, pronunciations, translation, and other
information; or a book of words in one language with
their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon. It
is a lexicographical product designed for
utility/function, curated with selected data, and
presented in a way that shows inter-relationships
among the data.
Type of Dictionaries
Specialized dictionaries
Defining dictionaries
 Prescriptive vs. descriptive
Dictionaries for natural language
processing
Thesaurus
In general usage, a thesaurus is a reference work that
lists words grouped together according to similarity of
meaning. The main purpose of such reference works is
to help the user “to find the word, or words, by which
an idea may be most fitly and aptly expressed”.
Although including synonyms, a thesaurus should not
be taken as a complete list of all the synonyms for a
particular word. The entries are also designed for
drawing distinctions between similar words and
assisting in choosing exactly the right word.
Encyclopedia
An encyclopedia is a type of reference work or
compendium holding a comprehensive summary of
information from either all branches of knowledge or a
particular branch of knowledge. Encyclopedias are
divided into articles or entries, which are usually
accessed alphabetically by article name. Encyclopedia
entries are longer and more detailed than those in
most dictionaries. Generally speaking, unlike
dictionary entries, which focus on linguistic
information about words, encyclopedia articles focus
on factual information to cover the thing or concept
for which the article name stands
Greetings
Requests
Business Communication
Meaning of Communication
Communication is a purposeful activity of exchanging
information and meaning across space and time using
various technical or natural means, whichever is available
or preferred. Communication requires a sender, a message,
a medium and a recipient, although the receiver does not
have to be present or aware of the sender's intent to
communicate at the time of communication; thus
communication can occur across vast distances in time and
space. Communication requires that the communicating
parties share an area of communicative commonality. The
communication process is complete once the receiver
understands the sender's message.
Communication Chart
Three Primary Steps Of Communication
 Thought: First, information exists in the mind of the
sender. This can be a concept, idea, information, or
feeling.
 Encoding: Next, a message is sent to a receiver in
words or other symbols.
 Decoding: Finally, the receiver translates the words or
symbols into a concept or information that a person
can understand.
Communication Process
Non-verbal Communication:
Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying
meaning in the form of non-word messages. Some forms of non verbal
communication include chronemics, haptics, gesture, body language or
posture, facial expression and eye contact, object communication such
as clothing, hairstyles, architecture, symbols, infographics, and tone of
voice, as well as through an aggregate of the above. Speech also
contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage. This form of
communication is the most known for interacting with people. These
include voice lesson quality, emotion and speaking style as well as
prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Research has
shown that up to 55% of human communication may occur through
non verbal facial expressions, and a further 38% through
paralanguage.Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such
as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words and the use of
emoticons to convey emotional expressions in pictorial form.
Non-verbal Communication:
Verbal Communication
Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependent on a number of
factors and cannot be fully isolated from other important interpersonal
skills such as non-verbal communication, listening skills and
clarification. Human spoken and pictorial languages can be described
as a system of symbols and the grammars by which the symbols are
manipulated. The word "language" also refers to common properties of
languages. Language learning normally occurs most intensively during
human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use
patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication
with others around them. Languages seem to share certain properties
although many of these include exceptions. There is no defined line
between a language and a dialect. Constructed languages such as
Esperanto, programming languages and various mathematical
formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by
human languages. Communication is the flow or exchange of
information from one person to another or a group of people.
Verbal Communication
Barriers to effective communication
 Physical barriers. Physical barriers are often due to
the nature of the environment. An example of this is
the natural barrier which exists if staff are located in
different buildings or on different sites. Likewise, poor
or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of
management to introduce new technology, may also
cause problems. Staff shortages are another factor
which frequently causes communication difficulties
for an organization
Barriers to effective communication
 Attitudinal barriers. Attitudinal barriers come about
as a result of problems with staff in an organization.
These may be brought about, for example, by such
factors as poor management, lack of consultation with
employees, personality conflicts which can result in
people delaying or refusing to communicate, the
personal attitudes of individual employees which may
be due to lack of motivation or dissatisfaction at work,
brought about by insufficient training to enable them
to carry out particular tasks, or simply resistance to
change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas
Barriers to effective communication
 Physiological barriers. These may result from
individuals' personal discomfort, caused—for
example—by ill health, poor eyesight or hearing
difficulties.
Barriers to effective communication
Group Discussion
A discussion group is a group of individuals with
similar interest who gather either formally or
informally to bring up ideas, solve problems or give
comments.
Academic Group Discussion
Small group of professionals or students formally or informally
negotiate about an academic topic within certain fields. This
implementation could be seen as an investigation or research
based on various academic levels. For instance, "one hundred
eighty college-level psychology students" breakdown into
different groups to participate in giving an orderly arrangement
of preferred events. Nevertheless, discussion groups could
support professional services and hold events to a range of
demographics; another distinguished example is from "The
London Biological Mass Spectrometry Discussion Group", which
sustainably operates by gathering "technicians, clinicians,
academics, industrialists and students" to exchange ideas on an
academic level. It attributes to the development of participants'
cognitive, critical thinking, and analytical skills.
Interview
An interview is a conversation between two or more
people where questions are asked by the interviewer to
elicit facts or statements from the interviewee
Types of interviews
 Informal, Conversational interview: No predetermined
questions are asked, in order to remain as open and
adaptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature and
priorities; during the interview the interviewer “goes
with the flow”.
 General interview guide approach: Intended to ensure
that the same general areas of information are
collected from each interviewee; this provides more
focus than the conversational approach, but still allows
a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the
information from the interviewee.
Types of interviews
 Standardized, open-ended interview: The same open-
ended questions are asked to all interviewees; this
approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more
easily analyzed and compared.
 Closed, fixed-response interview: All interviewees are
asked the same questions and asked to choose answers
from among the same set of alternatives. This format is
useful for those not practiced in interviewing. This
type of interview is also referred to as structured.
Presentation
A Presentation is a
means of
communication
which can be
adapted to various
speaking situations,
such as talking to a
group, addressing a
meeting or briefing a
team.
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