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AL AKHAWAYN UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COMMUNICATIONS STUDIES
8. Research
Lecture by Dr. Mohammed Ibahrine
based on Seitel’s The Practice of Public Relations
Lexical Definition:
•
Testimonial is a formal letter testifying to a person’s
character or qualification
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Testimonial proof is a parole evidence
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Data
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There is no data, only facts
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Data are produced, when a researcher recorded
his/her observations
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Data are a conscious record of a particular part of
reality
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From an epistemological point of view, there are no
given data
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Knowledge and information
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According to Daniel Bell,
knowledge
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“Is a set of organized statements of facts or ideas,
presenting a reasoned judgment or an
experimental result, which is transmitted to others
through some communication medium in some
systematic form” (cited after Castells, 1996: 17)
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Knowledge and information
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According to Machlup,
Information:
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“the communication of knowledge”
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According to Porat,
Information:
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“is data that have been organized and communicated” (cited
after Castells, 1996: 17)
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Typical Sources of Theoretical Research
•
Theoretical material
• Encyclopedia, Handbooks, Books, Academic Journals,
online resources
• Magazines and newspapers
»
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Definitions
Concepts
Models
Approach
Paradigms
Empirical case studies
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What is Research
•
Research is the systematic collection and
interpretation of information to increase
understanding
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Research must be the obligatory first step in any
project
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Research becomes essential in helping realize
management’s goals
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2.1. Planned Process to influence
Public Opinion
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What is the process through which public relations might influence
public opinion?
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John Marston suggested a four step model based on specific functions:
 1) Research:
 2) Action:
 3) Communication:
 4) Evaluation:
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2.1. Planned Process to influence
Public Opinion
•
For John Marston, whenever a public relations
professional is faced with an assignment she or he
should apply Marston’s R-A-C-E
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In 1997, the Institute for Public Relations Research
and Education
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offered six guiding principles in setting standards
for public relations research
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Principles of Public Relations Research
 1. Establishing clear program objectives and
desired outcomes tied directly to business goals
 2. Differentiating between
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measuring public relations “outputs” generally shortterm (amount of press coverage)
and measuring public relations “outcomes” usually
more far reaching (changing attitudes)
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Principles of Public Relations Research

3. Measuring media content as a first step in the public relations
evaluation process
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4. Understanding that no one technique can expect to evaluate
public relations effectiveness (a combination of research techniques)
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Media analysis
Cyberspace analysis
Focus groups
Polls
Survey
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Lexical Definition
Poll: a) the process of voting at an election. B) the
counting of votes at an election
Opinion poll record the opinion of a person or group in
an opinion poll
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Principles of Public Relations Research

5. Being wary of attempts to compare public relations
effectiveness with advertising effectiveness
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6. The most trustworthy measurement of public relations
effectiveness is that which stems from an organization with
clearly identify key messages, target audiences, and desired
channels of communication
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Types of Public Relations Research
•
Research is conducted to do three things:
 1. describe a process, situation or a
phenomenon
 2. explain why something is important, what its
causes are, and what effect it will have
 3. predict what probably will happen if we do or
do not take action
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Types of Public Relations Research
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Primary research in public relations is either
theoretical or applied
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Applied research resolves practical problems
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Theoretical research aids understanding of a public
relations process
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Applied Research
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In public relations work, applied research can be either
 Strategic
or
 evaluative
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Strategic is used primarily in program development
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To determine program objectives
To develop message strategies
To establish benchmarks (point of reference/standard)
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Applied Research
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Evaluative research is conducted primarily
 To determine whether a public relations
program has accomplished its goals and
objectives
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Theoretical Research
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Theoretical research is more
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Abstract
Conceptual
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than applied research
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Theoretical Research
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It helps build theories in public relations work about
 Why people communicate
 How public opinion is formed
 How a public is created
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Secondary Research
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Secondary research is research on the cheap
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Desk research uses data that have been collected
for other purposes than your own
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Among the typical sources of secondary research
are the following:
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Secondary Research
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Industry trade journals
Government
Websites
Informal contacts
Published company accounts
Business libraries
Professional institutes and organizations
Omnibus survey
Census data
Public records
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Secondary Research
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Because public relations budgets are limited
It always makes sense first to consider secondary
sources in launching a research efforts
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Methods of Public Relations Research
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Three primary forms of public relations research
dominate the field:
» 1. Surveys
» 2. Communication audits
» 3. Unobtrusive methods
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Methods of Public Relations Research
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1. Survey research: is one of the most frequently
used research methods in public relations
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Two types of surveys:
 1.1 Descriptive surveys
 1.2 Explanatory surveys
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Methods of Public Relations Research
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1.1 Descriptive surveys: offer a snapshot of a
current situation or condition
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A typical public opinion poll is a prime example
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Methods of Public Relations Research
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1.2 Explanatory surveys: are concerned with cause
and effect
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The purpose of explanatory surveys is
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To explain why a current situation or condition
exists
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To offer explanations for opinions and attitudes
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Methods of Public Relations Research
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Surveys generally consists of four elements:
 1. Sample
 2. Questionnaire
 3. Interview
 4. Analysis of results
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Methods of Public Relations Research
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1. Sample: or selected target group and must be
representative of the total public whose views are sought
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2. Random Sampling: in random sampling two properties are
essential:
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Equality means that no element has any greater or lesser chance
Independence means that selecting any one element in no way
influences the selection of any element
3. Nonrandom Sampling: Nonrandom samples come in three
types: convenience, quota and volunteer
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Methods of Public Relations Research
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The questionnaire: You should consider your objective in doing the
study
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You should observe the following in designing the questionnaire
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Keep it short
Use structured rather than open-ended questions
Measure the intensity of feelings
Avoid using loaded words and questions
Avoid using double-barreled loaded words and questions
Pretest
Attach a letter explaining how important the respondents’ answers
Follow up your first mailing
Send out more questionnaires than you think necessary
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Methods of Public Relations Research
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Interviews: can provide a more personal, firsthand
feel for public opinion
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Interview panels can range from
 Focus groups of randomly selected average people
 Delphi panels of so-called opinion leaders
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Methods of Public Relations Research
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Interviews can be conducted in a a number of ways:
 Face-to-face (Drop-off Interview + Intercept Interviews)
 Telephone (Telephone Interviews)
 Mail (Mail Interviews)
 The Internet (Internet Interviews)
 Delphi Interviews
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Methods of Public Relations Research
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Focus groups: This approach is used with
increasing frequency in public relations today
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It can be conducted through
 one-on-one
 Survey panel
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Methods of Public Relations Research
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Focus groups should be organized with the
following guidelines in mind:
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Define your objective and audience
Recruit your group
Conduct enough focus group
Use a discussion guide
Choose proper facilities
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Methods of Public Relations Research
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Result analysis: means to check
 The validity
 The reliability
 The levels of statistical significance
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before concrete recommendations based on survey
data
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Communication Audits
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Communication audits are typically used to analyze
the standing of a company with its employees or
community neighbors to assess the routine
communication vehicles such as
 Manual reports
 News release
 Examine an organization's performance as a
corporate citizens
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Communication Audits
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Purpose:
Communication Audit (CA) presents a complete
analysis of an organization's internal and external
communications designed to determine
communication needs, policies, practices, and
capabilities
The results are used by management to make
informed decisions about future communication
needs and goals
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Communication Audits
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The results are used by management to make
informed decisions about future communication
needs and goals
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Communication Audits
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Scope:
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The scope of an audit may be as broad or as
narrow as the size of the organization's demands
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An audit can uncover misunderstandings and
information barriers as well as opportunities
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Communication Audits
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Subject:
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Typically, audits are used to provide information on issues such as
the following:
Objectives and goals-short and long term
Existing communication vehicles-publications, manuals, slides,
reports and correspondence
Bottlenecked information flows
Conflicting or nonexisting notions about what the organization is and
does
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Communication Audits
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Methodology:
CA is a straightforward analysis
1. Pertinent literature review
2. Competitive literature is then reviewed for
purposes of comparison and contrast
3. Interview with top management
4. Recommendations
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Communication Audits
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Methodology:
The most effective CAs start with a researcher who
1. Is familiar with the public to be studied
2. Understands the attitudes of the target public
toward the organization
3. Recognizes the issues of concern to the target
public
4. Understands the relative power of the target public
vis-à-vis other publics
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Unobtrusive Methods
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Fact-finding:
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Of the various unobtrusive methods of data
collection of public relations, the most widely used
is fact-finding
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Facts are the bricks and mortar of public relations
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Most essential data can be filed in publications
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Unobtrusive Methods
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Content analysis:
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Its primary purpose is to describe a message or a set of messages
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Content analysis might be organized according to the following
specific criteria
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Frequency of coverage
Placement within the paper
People reached
Message conveyed
Editing of release
Attitude conveyed
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Unobtrusive Methods
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Readability study:
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Do the written messages fit the right educational level of the
targeted audience
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Typical measurements include Flesch Formula, the FOG
Index and the SMOG Index
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The greater the number of syllables in a passage, the more
difficult and less readable the text
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