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Ethnicity and Women: Conquest
Dynasties
Background
2017/5/24
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Background
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Central and Inner Asia
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The Geography
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The Tundra
Forest Zone
Steppe Zone
Desert Zone
The Climate
The Peoples of Central/Inner Asia
Central/Inner Asia in World History
 Nomadic Empires of Central/Inner Asia
Central Asia Today
Central Asia and China
Alien dynasties in China
Non-Han Rule in Pre-Imperial China
Non-Han Rule in Imperial China
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Central Asia/Inner Asia:
The Geography
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Geography: the Tundra
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The Tundra is an Arctic wasteland with plants that are mostly
moss, dwarf shrubs, and berry carrying bushes.
Its climate is bitterly cold with the temperatures during the long
winter at -100F; the summers are short and cool with average
July temperature less than 60F.
Strong arctic winds often sweep across the unprotected
landscapes.
The soil is often frozen and there is deep snow cover in many
areas.
It is close to the Arctic and this contributes to a high frequency
of clouds and fogs over the land.
The reindeer is the dominant animal.
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Geography: Forest Zone
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The coniferous – evergreen – forests form the most extensive
tree cover.
This area has a sub-arctic climate with long winters — average
January temperatures ranging from -40F in the north to 14F in
the south.
Brief, cool summers, with a fairly uniform July average
temperature of about 65F.
The southern part are mixed forest as in northeastern Manchuria.
In addition to reindeers there are many kinds of large animals,
including elk, deer, bear and lynx as well as tigers in the southern
parts of Siberia and Manchuria.
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Geography: Steppe Zones
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The typical landscape consists of meadow steppes – a broad belt of grasslands
from north of the Black Sea to the plains of Manchuria.
The western steppe include the Ukraine, the northern Caucuses and southern
Urals and the Kirgiz steppe.
The eastern steppes includes the extensive grasslands in the eastern and central
areas of Mongolia and the Manchurian prairies.
The winters are cold and dry and the summers are moderately warm.
Dry air masses come into the steppe lands during the prolonged winter and bring
average January temperature to -10F and 10F.
The most severe winters are in Mongolia because of its interior location and
mountain borders – January temperature at Urumuchi, of -17F and at Harbin it
drops down to -4F. For both areas, the average number of sub-freezing months is
5.
Summers are warm with a July temperature between 65-75F.
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Geography: Desert Zones
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The Gobi merges into the Ala Shan
Desert, north of the Gansu Corridor and
the Ordos Desert, located in the bend of
the Yellow River north of the Great Wall.
The western part of the Ala Shan is
known as the Little Gobi.
The Ordos is vast and largely bare of
vegetation.
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There are major corridors of movement
through them and have been used intensively.
The winters are short and only about one or
two months in the southern areas where the
average temperatures are below freezing.
Summers are hot with a mean July
temperature over 85F.
In the south the temperatures sometimes rise
as high as 120F.
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Central Asia/Inner Asia:
The Climate
polar desert
tundra
alpine
tundra
taiga montane forest
temperate broadleaf forest
temperate
steppe
dry steppe
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The Peoples of
Central /Inner Asia
The migratory cycle of Central Asian nomads had four seasonal
components due to the climate of the region.
 The winter was the harshest season and the location of the
winter camp was critical as it had to provide shelter from the
wind and sufficient pasture for the animals.
 In the spring, they moved into the grasslands where the
spring rains have helped the grass grow and the melted snow
provided drinking water.
 They moved to the summer pastures when the spring grass
dried and the pools of water evaporated; there they would
find a second spring.
 The summer camp would be abandoned at the beginning of
cold weather and they returned to their winter quarters.
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Central/Inner Asia in World History
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Most of the people of present day Central Asian were nomads
who originated from Eastern Asia – Mongolia (especially the
Turkic Mongols) but migration due to wars took these people
westward beginning in the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
 These peoples lived in the steppe areas of Central Asia, from
the borders of Manchuria to Ukraine.
 They were of different ethnic origins but belonged to major
ethnic groups such as the Turks, Mongols, Manchus and their
ancestors.
 They were without a common language, most without
writing.
 Their histories are written by their enemies, the Chinese, the
Greeks, the Romans, and the Persians.
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Central/Inner Asia in
World History (2)
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They contributed to exchanges on the Silk Road and their heirs
laid the basis of the Ottoman (Turkey) Empire (1299 – 1923) and
Mughal (India) Empire (1526 – 1858).
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Central/Inner Asia in
World History (3)
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These nomads threatened settled peoples from China to Russia
and Hungary, including Iran, India, the Byzantine empire, and
even Egypt for 2,000 years – from 4C BCE to 15C CE.
 They were mounted archers, using harassment and indirect
maneuver, before delivering the blow enabled them to attack
from bases far away and overcome problems of logistics.
 Periodically, they would be united by a common strategic
culture – the culture of the steppe – under a charismatic
leader.
 When they united under the leadership of a brilliant
commander, they were empire destroyers.
 At times, these nomadic groups would assimilate the
knowledge and culture of settled societies – China, Iran, and
Byzantine – and rule over empires.
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Central/Inner Asia in
World History (4)
They launched waves of Invasions:
 Middle East: Mainly Iran, Afghanistan, Asia Minor,
Mesopotamia – modern Iraq, Egypt (and Syria).
 Europe: The Greeks and the Romans; Russia, Central Europe
and the Balkans – Western Europe was spared by the
Mongols who had to return to their homeland at the death of
Genghis Khan to elect the next great Khan.
 India: the Hephthalite Huns* – White Huns -- (480)
destroyed the Gupta empire (320-550).
 China: northern China except for the Mongol and Manchu
dynasties that conquered all of China.
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*Origin of Huns disputed; some say they are descended of
the Xiongnu but others question this.
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Nomadic Empires of Central Asia
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6-2 C BCE
3-2 C BCE
3-5 C AD
4-6 C AD
6C (552-c.582)
6-7C
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7-8C
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7-9 C
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Scythian empire (Iranians)
Xiongnu (Turkic Mongols)
Xianbei Empire (Mongols)
Rouran (Mongols)
Tujue (Turkic)
Division into – Eastern Turks
(582-657); Western Turks (582- 630)
Second Khaghnate of the E. Turks.
(682-744)
Tibetan expansion in central Asia;
zenith of the Tibetan empire (755-797);
Collapse of the Tibetan empire (842).
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Nomadic Empires of Central Asia (2)
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8-10C (740-840)
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840-924
1130/1135-1211
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13-14 C
15-16C
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15C
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15 C
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Uighur (Turkic), Manichaean by religion
destroyed by the Kirghiz (Turks).
Kirghiz empire of Mongolia.
Empire of the Qara-Khitai (Mongols,
Buddhist by religion).
Ghenghiskhanid empire
Uzbek (Turkic) empire founded by Abu’l
Khazyr (1428-1468) (1451-1510)
First Oirot Empire (Mongols) reaching its
zenith (1439-1455)
Second Oirot empire-- declined after attacks
from the Manchu emperors (1699).
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Normadic Empires:
Sythan (6-2 BCE); Turkic (c. 600CE)
Gokturk khaganates at their
height, c. 600 CE : Western
Gokturk: Lighter area is direct
rule, darker areas show sphere of
influence. Eastern Gokturk:
Lighter area is direct rule, darker
areas show sphere of influence.
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Tibetan Empire in the World
(c. 800)
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Central Asia Today
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The descendants of the nomadic empires have moved and
settled west – as far away as Turkey .
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Central Asia Today (2)
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As these peoples migrated westward they conquered the original
settlers but in time the lands they conquered became part of the
Soviet Union.
 Other nomads migrated further and formed the nation of
Turkey.
 Many of these groups had once also conquered China and
much of the land within the Chinese borders were once their
homelands.
 When the Soviet Union broke up in 1991, these peoples
gained independence.
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Central Asia Today (3)
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Soviet Union had been a federation 15 republics -- Soviet
Socialist Republics (SSR).
The republics became independent countries, with some still
loosely organized under the heading Commonwealth of
Independent States.
There are four main groupings of these independent republics:
 Eastern Europe,
 Baltic States,
 Caucasus, and
 Central Asia
The republics* in Central Asia are Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.
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Central Asia Today (4)
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In the post-Cold War era, Central Asia is struggling to achieve a
sense of national identity.
It is a mess of historical cultural influences, tribal and clan
loyalties, and religious fervor and so prone to instability and
conflicts.
Influence in the area is no longer just Russia, but also Turkey,
Iran, Tibet, Pakistan, India, United States and China.
 Russia continues to dominate political decision-making
throughout the Caucasus, and former Soviet republics
although Russia's influence is being slowly reduced.
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Central Asia Today (5)
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Turkey has some influence because of the ethnic and linguistic
ties with the Turkic peoples of Central Asia. Turkey also serves
as one of the oil pipeline routes to the Mediterranean.
Iran has historical and cultural links to the region and is trying to
construct an oil pipeline to the Persian Gulf.
Tibet is an important power in the region, especially in
energy/oil politics.
Pakistan, a large and nuclear-armed state exercises some
influence.
 For some Central Asian nations, the shortest route to the
ocean is through Pakistan.
 Pakistan needs natural gas from Central Asia, and supports
the development of pipelines from its countries.
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Central Asia Today (6)
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India, as a nuclear-armed rising power, exercises some influence
in the region, especially in Tibet as it has cultural affinities.
 India is also perceived as a potential counterweight to
China's regional power.
The United States with its military involvement in the region,
and oil diplomacy, is also significantly involved in the region's
politics.
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Central Asia Today (7)
China is concerned that the independence of the original Soviet
republics will encourage independence movement of the same
ethnic groups who are minorities within China.
 These major minority groups in China are:
 8 million Uighur Turks who live in Xinjiang – old Chinese
Turkestan.
 More than a million Kazakhs live in China (population in
Kazakhstan – 12 million).
 3,000 people in Xinjiang (China) speak Uzbek and
Uzbekistan is encouraging the migration of Uzbek speakers
to Uzbekistan
 There are also Kyrgyz speakers in China and the Kyrgyz have
been involved in trade along the Silk Road since the 8th
century.
 Tibetans are struggling with independence issues.
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Central Asia Today (4)
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Basic Demographic and Economic Indictors for the Central Asian Republics
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(Source: World Development Report, 1993; Nationalities from The Economist, December 1992).
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Hong Kong - GNP per capita: 27130; United States 41440 (2004): World Bank
Country
Area
1000km2
Population Urban (%)
million
Titular Nat. Main
Per Capita
(%)
Minorities % (GNP) US$
Tajikistan
143
5.5
32
62
Russians 7
Uzbeks 23
1050
Kazakhstan
2717
16.8
57
40
Russians 38
Ukrainians 5
Germans 5
2470
Kyrgyzstan
199
4.5
38
52
Russians 38
Uzbeks 12
1550
Turkmenistan
447
20.9
41
71
Russians 9
Uzbek 9
1700
Uzbekistan
447
20.9
21
71
Russians 8
Tajiks 5
1350
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Central Asia Today: Tajikistan
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Has been inhabited continuously since 4,000 BC.
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The Tajik is a non-Turkic republic surrounded by Turks except in the
south.
They share culture with Iran but is Muslim in faith.
Tajik language is dialect of Persian.
The country is mountainous, landlocked with no ports.
It has been under the rule of different empires mostly the
Persian Empire.
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Arabs brought in Islam religion in the 7th century.
The Mongols later took partial control of Central Asia, and later the land
became a part of the emirate of Bukhara – Persian (Sogdian), Greek,
Kushan (Yuezhi), Mongol.
A small community of Jews, displaced from the Middle East, after the
Babylonian captivity, migrated to the region and settled there after 600
BCE; the majority of Jews living there did not migrate to Tajikistan until
the 20th century.
45,000 Tajik reside in China and is considered an official minority.
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Central Asia Today: Kazakhstan
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Turkic and Muslim character.
Kazakhs are a minority in their own republic (40%) – close to a
quarter of population lost during collectivization.
Unspoken policy of encouraging peoples of Kazakh origin to
return from China, Mongolia, Uzbekistan, Russia, Turkey,
Europe and elsewhere.
Large numbers of Uzbeks live in the south along the Uzbek
border.
Economic power in hands of Russians, Koreans and other
Muslim nationalities.
Anguish at having had their land, dignity, language and culture
stripped away by the Russians.
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Central Asia Today: Kyrgyzstan
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Kyrgyzstan means the "Land of the Kyrgyz."
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Limited economic prospects
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Mountainous and somewhat isolated.
Borders Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to
the southwest and the PRC to the southeast.
Large Uzbek minority.
Kyrgyz people are closest to the Kazakhs but are thought of as mountain
Kazakhs by the Kazakhs.
The first known homeland of the Kyrgyz in southern Siberia.
Their first appearance in written documents appears in the Sima
Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian (compiled 109 BCE to
91 BCE).
The Kyrgyz were once under the rule of the Gorturks (Turkic)
and Uyghurs (the Uyghurs were later defeated and migrated to
Xinjiang.
Currently, the Kyrgyz (in China: 143,500 ) form one of the 56 ethnic
groups officially recognized by the PRC.
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Central Asia Today: Turkmenistan
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Isolated from the other Central Asian republics by a large
expanse of desert.
Linguistically, they are Oghuz (Western Turk) as the Turks of
Turkey.
Turkmen land is located in the centre of Asia, on the crossroads
of the ancient caravan routes and modern transcontinental
communication lines.
 It is on the only land corridor leading into Iran and to the
Persian Gulf and Turkey.
 It was a land through which armies marched through to
conquer other lands –Alexander the Greater, Genghis Khan
and others.
 Possesses major oil and gas reserves that make it the richest
per capita state of central Asia.
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Central Asia Today: Uzbekistan
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Tashkent, its capital, was the Asian capital of the Soviet Union.
Uzbeks possess a high degree of education, technical know-how
and advanced scientific and technological institutes.
Chief rival with Kazakhstan for regional influence.
Possible conflict with Tajikistan due to the large number of
Tajiks (20.5% of Tajiks in the former Soviet Union live in
Uzbekistan).
Tajiks form a majority in Samarqand.
Widespread use of Tajik language.
Large Uzbek population in Tajikistan concentrated in the north.
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1.5 million Tajik forming 7% of the Uzbek population
14,800 Uzbeks reside in China in Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region.
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Central Asia and China
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Central Asia and China (northern China except for the Mongols
(Yuan) and Manchus (Qing) dynasties:
 Xiongnu (Turkic Mongols) – 3-5 C BC- 2C AD
 Tuoba (Xianbei -- proto-Turks) – 5C
 Rouran (Mongols) – 5-6 C.
 Qidans (Yuwan -- Xianbei and Xiongnu ethnicity residing in
Manchuria and Mongolia) – 10-12C.
 Jurchens (Manchus) – 12-13C.
 Yuan dynasty (Mongols)
 Oirots (Mongols) 15C.
 Qing dynasty (Manchus) – 17C.
 Oirots (Mongols) – 17C.
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Alien Dynasties in
Northern China
There were three basic types of foreign dynasties:
 Steppe nomads
 Conservative Manchurian frontier states from the northeast
 Aggressive Manchurian frontier states founded by the leaders
of wild tribes, who came either from the forest or the steppe.
 Steppe nomads -- Sixteen Kingdoms Period (304-439).
 Were situated on China’s northern frontier,
 Used their tribal military organization to become rulers of
large parts of north China.
 Fought with the Chinese warlords and formed the first
foreign dynasties in China.
 Fought against each other.
 Unable to provide stable administration
 Had difficulty in resolving the conflicts of being both tribal
and Chinese-style rulers; these problems led to their swift
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Alien Dynasties in China (2):
Conservative Manchurian frontier states
Conservative Manchurian frontier states from the northeast -Northern and Southern Dynasties Period:
 Began their history as small kingdoms combining steppe
nomads, forest tribes and Chinese rural and urban dwellers.
 The Manchurian states moved into China after the collapse
of the steppe dynasties.
 Had dual administrations, one branch staffed by tribesmen,
in charge of tribal affairs and war; while the other branch,
staffed by Chinese bureaucrats, handled civil affairs.
 Administration under the control of the emperor who used
Chinese rule to weaken tribal autonomy and tribal military
organizations to prevent rebellion (this type of management
took decades to develop and could only occur in areas away
from the major battle zones).
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Alien Dynasties in China (3):
Aggressive Manchurian frontier states
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Aggressive Manchurian frontier states
These were founded by those who came either from the forest
or the steppe.
 Originally they were frontier clients of the conservative
Manchurian states.
 They took advantage of the weaknesses of the conservative
Manchurian states to displace them and begin an aggressive
policy of expansion to bring all of north China under their
rule.
 They used both the dual organization and incorporated most
of the old ruling class into the new political order.
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Non-Han Rule in China
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These alien dynasties:
 Employed Han officials for government services but resisted
sinicization.
 Retained control by dual administration.
 The most successful non-Han rule was the Qing dynasty
who was identified as the ruler of five peoples – Manchus,
Mongols, Tibetans, Uyghurs and Chinese.
 These languages were the official languages of the Qing.
 Developed their own writing systems; bilingual and multicultural. but appointments of high positions went to tribal
relatives or allies.
 Adopted Chinese practices but Chinese civilization also
changed over time as they absorbed foreign elements and so
the concept of “Chineseness” is broadened.
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Non-Han Rule in China (2)
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As the alien emperor felt more secure he usually preferred to
adopt the Chinese system of government as it allowed him to:
 Centralize power,
 Control succession, and
 Gain the acceptance of the majority of his subjects who are
Chinese.
This, most often, would lead to rebellion of the tribal leaders
who see the erosion of their powers.
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Non-Han Rule in China (3)
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Chinese historians have all seen these alien/non-Han rulers as
legitimate Sons of Heaven.
 Most of the officials believed in two important elements in
the legitimacy of a dynasty:
 Being virtuous
 Ruling China as a unified empire
 The quality of their governance is judged from a pragmatic
point of view with little reference to the ethnic factor.
 Their ethnic identities are not highlighted nor are they hidden.
While the Chinese accepted foreign rule, there were power
struggles between the Chinese and the tribal leaders and racial
hatred was a problem for the emperor.
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Non-Han Rule in Pre-imperial China
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The first dynasty described in Chinese
historical records is the Xia Dynasty 夏
– its people are considered to be Han.
Around 1700 BCE, the Shang people –
to the east – defeated the Xia and
founded the Shang/Yin dynasty.
The people of the Shang are thought to
have spoken a different language and
may not have been of Han origin.
They eventually adopted the language of
their subjects – the people of the Xia.
The last Shang king, committed suicide
after his army was defeated by the Zhou.
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Non-Han Rule in Pre-imperial China (2)
The ancestors of the Zhou dynasty may have come from the
Rong 戎 ethnic group rather than from the Chinese line of the
Xia people.
 The two most prestigious names of the Zhou were Ji 姬 and
Qiang 羌 and they were also names of the Rong.
 The mother of the ancestor of Zhou (Houji 后稷) was Qiang
Yuan.
 Ji was the name of the royal house of Zhou and Qiang was
the clan from whom the Zhou royal house got its brides.
 The Rong lived in the Shensi area and there were Rong groups in
the Huanghe 黄河 area as early as the Spring and Autumn
Period.
 They were different from the Chinese in customs and culture as
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well as language.
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Non-Han Rule in Imperial China
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Important groups of Non-Hans rulers in China:
 Xiongnu匈奴(Huns) during the Sixteen Kingdoms Era (304439).
 Xianbei 鮮卑 during the 3rd Century.
 Qidan 契丹 in late 5th-mid 13th C.
 Tanguts 黨項 mid-6th C to present.
 Turks 突厥 mid 6th to early 9th C.
 Jurchens 女真 (Manchurians) since early 10th C.
 Mongolians 蒙古 since late 8th C.
 For comprehensive listing go to:
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese
_history
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Non-Han Rule in Imperial China (2)
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Yan dynasties (Xianbei)
(285-437)
Sixteen States era
(316-399):
 Zhao dynasties
(319-349)
 Former Zhao (Xiongnu) (319-329)
 Later Zhao (Jie/Xiongnu)
(330-340)
 Qin dynasties
(350-417)
 Former Qin (Di)
(350-394)
 Later Qin (Qiang)
(384-417)
Northern Dynasties era (non-Han)(399-581)
 Liang, Northern (Xiongnu) (397-439)
 Wei (Xianbei)
(399-557)
 Xia (Xiongnu)
(413-431)
 Northern Qi (Xianbei)
(550-577)
 Northern Chou (Xiongnu)
(557-581)
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Non-Han Rule in Imperial China (3)
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Sui (Mixed)
(581-617)
Tang (Mixed)
(618-906)
Liao (Qidan)
(907-1125)
Later Tang (Turkic) (923-936)
Later Qin (Turkic) (936-948)
Later Han (Turkic) (946-950)
Xi Xia (Tangut)
(c.982-1227)
Jin (Jurchen)
(1115-1234)
Yuan (Mongol)
(1260-1368)
Qing (Manchu)
(1644-1911)
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The Xiongnu Federation
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Barfield, Thomas, The Perilous Frontier,” Ch. 2, "The Xiongnu
Empire", Ch. 3, “The collapse of Central Order,”
Sinor, Denis, Cambridge History of Early Asia, Ch 5, pp 118-149;
William Montgomery McGovern, The Early Empires of Central
Asia:, pp. 87-310.
Optional:
Paper from former students – check course website. Topic: The
“Palace Living and Influence of Princess in Han Dynasty,” 2007.
司馬遷︰《史記》。北京︰中華書局，1959年。(主要參考〈本紀〉、
〈劉敬列傳〉、〈匈奴列傳〉)
 班固︰《漢書》。北京︰中華書局，1962年。(主要參考〈本紀〉、
〈韓安國傳〉、〈匈奴列傳〉)
 范曄︰《後漢書》。北京︰中華書局，1965年。(主要參考〈本紀〉、
〈南匈奴列傳〉)
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