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Readiness standards comprise 65% of the U. S. History Test 4 (A) Readiness Standard (4) The student understands the emergence of the U. S. as a world power between 1898 and 1920. The Student is expected to: (A) Explain why significant events, policies, & individuals such as the Spanish-American War, U. S. expansionism, Henry Cabot Lodge, Alfred Thayer Mahan, Theodore Roosevelt, Sanford B. Dole, & missionaries moved the United States into a position of world power Readiness Standard (4) The student understands the emergence of the U. S. as a world power between 1898 and 1920. (A) 1 The Spanish-American War 4 (A) 2 U. S. expansionism TOWARDS EMPIRE: THE UNITED STATES BECOMES A WORLD POWER (1865-1901) Movement away from traditional American isolationism was the result of the filling of the American continent by the U. S. A. and increasing trade which drew the United States into world affairs. How American Expansion of the 1890s Differed from Past U.S. Expansion • • • • America had been expanding virtually from its birth Previous expansion had been contiguous Territories taken in 1890s were less for settlement than as naval bases, trading outposts, & commercial centers on major trade routes The new territories were not so much “states-in-the-making” as colonies Classic Economic Imperialism “Factories and farms multiplied, producing more goods than the domestic market could consume. Both farmers and industrialists looked for new overseas markets, and the growing volume of exports. . . changed the nature of American trade relations with the world.” The Urge to Expand The evolution of “Manifest Destiny” William H. Seward— U. S. Secretary of State under presidents Lincoln and Johnson Alaska—”Seward’s Folly” Ahead of his time, Seward had visions of an American Empire stretching from the Caribbean to Asia, including Latin America, Canada, and many of the strategically located Pacific islands. “Seward’s Folly”—the initial response to the purchase of Alaska from Russia was not a positive one. Many Americans believed that Seward had squandered good money for a valueless acquisition. Potential of Panama Seward even perceived the importance of a canal across the Panama isthmus (right). In 1867 he also supervised the annexation of the Midway Islands in the Pacific Ocean. President Ulysses S. Grant (left) and Secretary of State Hamilton Fish (right) Both Grant and Fish favored U.S. expansion. The president wanted American influence in the Caribbean, the Pacific, and Latin America. Fish did much to ameliorate Anglo-American relations by working to settle the “Alabama Claims,” remuneration for damages done to Union ships by Confederate vessels constructed by the British and sold to the South. James G. Blaine In the contemporary spirit of an international hunt for territory—the so-called “New Imperialism of the late-19th century—Secretary of State Blaine was aggressive in acquiring markets in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. Blaine “envisaged a hemispheric system of peaceful intercourse, arbitration of disputes, and expanded trade.” Grover Cleveland (left) and Defense of the Monroe Doctrine In 1895, President Cleveland adopted an aggressive Latin American policy. He attempted to intervene in a dispute between the British and Venezuela over the Venezuelan-British Guiana boundary—a region in which gold had been recently discovered. Invoking the Monroe Doctrine, Cleveland insisted that the matter be submitted to arbitration. Britain submitted the matter to arbitration in 1896 initiating a new era of Anglo-American friendship. British Prime Minister Lord Salisbury (right) Salisbury “bluntly repudiated the Monroe Doctrine as international law.” Benjamin F. Tracy, Secretary of the Navy under President Benjamin Harrison Greatly influenced by the writings of naval strategists—especially Alfred Thayer Mahan (below)—Tracy supported the Big Navy advocates who aspired to create a two-ocean fleet of battleships that could strike enemies in distant parts of the globe. When Tracy assumed his post as Naval Secretary (1889) the U.S. Navy ranked 12th in the world. The developments he set in motion elevated that ranking to third by the end of the century 4 (A) 4 Alfred Thayer Mahan The Influence of Sea Power Upon History Mahan’s writings insisted that future U. S. prosperity depended on access to world markets; the U. S. needed a strong navy to protect their trade routes; advocated annexation of Hawaii and construction of canal through Panama. Mahan believed that industrialism “produced vast surpluses of agricultural and manufactured goods, for which markets must be found. Markets involved distant ports; reaching them required a large merchant marine and a powerful navy to protect it.” 4 (A) 3 Henry Cabot Lodge Of the sympathies of the American people, generous, liberty-loving, I have no question. They are with the Cubans in their struggle for freedom. I believe our people would welcome any action on the part of the United States to put an end to the terrible state of things existing there. We can stop it. . . . We mean to stop the horrible state of things in After the war, Lodge Cuba and it will be stopped. The great power of the United States, was part of the imperialist faction if it is once invoked and uplifted, is capable of greater things than within the Senate. that. 4 (A) 5 Theodore Roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt read Superiorité des Anglo-Saxons—a French volume arguing that the English-speaking peoples were naturally superior—as he prepared to participate in the Spanish-American War of 1898. Darwinist Applications The late-19th century was awash in Darwinist currents of thought. Many learned men of the day considered “survival of the fittest” to be a valid concept that applied not only to the animal kingdom but to relations between nation-states. 4 (A) 6 Sanford B. Dole Longtime resident of Hawaii who, as a lawyer & jurist, opposed the native royal family, supported American immigrants, & advocated westernization of Hawaiian culture & government Acquisition of Hawaii—the “Crossroads of the Pacific” By 1820, U.S. missionaries had arrived intending to convert the natives to Christianity American planters developed Hawaii’s rich soil and made healthy profits off of sugar production—Hawaii became increasingly dependent economically on the U.S. American planters aided by U. S. Marines overthrew Queen Liliuokalani (right) President McKinley’s administration annexed Hawaii (1898) • • • • McKinley feared that some other power— notably the Japanese that comprised a quarter of Hawaii’s population—might take the islands U.S. Opponents of annexation worried about the “mongrelization” of the population—In July 1898, in the midst of the excitement of the Spanish-American War, McKinley annexed Hawaii—McKinley did this through a joint resolution rather than a treaty The latter required only a majority in both houses while the former required two-thirds support Hawaii A valuable commercial and naval base in the middle of the Pacific A stepping stone on the route to Chinese markets 4 (A) 7 Missionary-ism American Missionaries saw imperialist annexation of Hawaii as an opportunity to convert the heathen natives to Christianity. They viewed native culture disdainfully. 4 (A) 1 Spanish-American War War with Spain “The war with Spain in 1898 built a mood of national confidence, altered older, more insular patterns of thought, and reshaped the way Americans saw themselves and the world. . . . [The war] raised questions about war itself, colonies, and subject peoples. The war left a lingering strain of isolation and antiwar feeling that affected later policy. It also left an American empire, small by European standards, but quite new to the American experience. . . . and the United States was recognized as a ‘world power.’ The Spanish-American War established the United States as a dominant force for the twentieth century. It brought America colonies and millions of colonial subjects; it brought responsibilities of governing an empire and protecting it. . . . It involved the country in other nations’ arguments and affairs. The war strengthened the office of the presidency, swept the nation together in a tide of emotion, and confirmed the long-standing belief in the superiority of the New World over the Old. When it was over, Americans looked outward as never before, touched, they were sure, with a special destiny. The Players Valeriano “Butcher” Weyler y Nicolau 21B-3a William Randolph Hearst-publisher of New York newspaper the Journal George Dewey— American Commodore who commanded U. S. naval squadron in Hong Kong Theodore Roosevelt The 39-year old Theodore Roosevelt was among a large group of Americans who, in 1898, believed that “nations must fight every now and then to prove their power and test the national spirit. . . . Nations needed to fight in order to survive.” Reasons Roosevelt supported the War against Spain: • To free Cuba and expel Spain from the Western Hemisphere • Inspire Americans to focus on something other than material gain • Provide the U.S. army and navy with an opportunity to practice their craft Pro-War Newspaper Publishers William Randolph Hearst (left) published the New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer (right) published the New York World. These two men captured large readerships with their bold headlines, lavish illustrations, and sensational--and often inaccurate-stories. McKinley’s Outlook on War Initially, McKinley sought to maintain a neutral position McKinley offered to mediate the conflict but Spain refused In 1898, McKinley sent the battleship Maine to Havana to demonstrate U.S. strength and protect American citizens A private letter by Spanish Ambassador to the U.S., Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, became public;it included several insulting observations about President McKinley and betrayed Spanish insincerity in the negotiating process Sinking of the Maine The Maine enters Havana Harbor. There were 266 American sailors who died in the blast. A popular slogan of the day became, “Remember the Maine and to Hell with Spain!” Declaration of War • • • • On April 19, 1898, Congress passed a joint resolution declaring Cuba independent and authorizing the president to use force to evict the Spanish On April 21, Spain severed relations with the U.S. On April 22, McKinley proclaimed a naval blockade of Cuba On April 25, Congress passed a declaration of war with Spain and the president signed it Two Views of the Conflict John Hay (above) who became McKinley’s Secretary of State described it as a “splendid little war.” Alternatively, author Sherwood Anderson suggested that the U.S. taking on Spain was “like robbing an old gypsy woman in a vacant lot at night after the fair.” Whatever one’s point of view, the conflict was decidedly lopsided and lasted a mere ten weeks. Manila Bay U. S. navy under Commodore George Dewey, commander of America’s Asiatic Squadron, steamed from Hong Kong to the Philippines where he sank or captured the entire Spanish fleet Territories Acquired by the U.S. as a Result of the Spanish-American War Puerto Rico The Philippine Islands What Was Cuba’s Status as a Result of the Spanish-American War? The caricature below offers another interpretation of what occurred when the U.S. went to war against Spain Cuba became an independent nation. . . more or less. Teller Amendment Colorado Senator Henry M. Teller’s declaration was part of a joint resolution demanding that Spain withdraw from Cuba; Teller Amendment renounced any plan of U. S. annexation of Cuba. Platt Amendment The Amendment gave U. S. right to set up naval stations— principally at Guantanamo Bay— and send troops to Cuba to preserve order The Presidential View While McKinley sympathized with the Filipino desire for independence, he feared that one of the European imperialist nations might move into the Philippines. Since he did not believe the Filipino people were ready for selfgovernment,--a reflection of the racism of the times—the president saw no other choice but to annex and govern the archipelago until its people were ready to govern themselves. Critics of Annexation of the Philippines By terms of the treaty signed by the Spanish on December 10, 1898, the U.S. paid $20 million for the Philippines. However, treaty ratification in the U.S. Senate precipitated a hailstorm of debate. Those in and out of the Senate resisted annexation for a host of different reasons. #1 Annexation violated the very principles of independence and self-determination on which the U.S. was founded #2 Some people warned about “half-breeds and semibarbaric people” who might undercut wages and unionism #3 The Constitution had no provision for ruling colonies #4 Some argued that imposition of tyranny abroad would ultimately lead to tyranny at home Among the Critics William Carnegie so objected to the annexation of the Philippines that he James actually offered to purchase Filipino independence for no less than $20— the very price the U.S. government paid to Spain for the annexation of the area. Samuel Gompers Jane Addams William Jennings Bryan (left) asserted that “this nation cannot endure half a republic and half a colony—half free and half vassal.” Ironically, Bryan—who held deeply pacifist convictions—had supported the SpanishAmerican War at its onset and even took command of a volunteer regiment from his home state, Nebraska Comparison of the Spanish-American War of 1898 and the Philippine-American War of 1898-1902 SpanishAmerican War President McKinley called for 125,000 volunteers to augment the 28,000 already in the regular army Traditional warfare European soldiers from Spain Philippine-American War Four times the number of U.S. soldiers used in the Philippines as in Cuba Filipinos adopted guerilla tactics ruling the night while the U.S. ruled the day For the first time, the U.S. fights men of color in Asia 5,500 Americans killed in war War’s Goal: bring freedom to the subjects of imperial Spain Qualified independence received by Cuba 4,300 U.S. lives vs. 50,000-200,000 Filipino lives Wars Goal: implement annexation of Philippines and establish imperial government American occupation followed by government of the Philippines lasting till July 4, 1946. Open Door Notes These notes from Secretary of State John Hay (left) asked that no power would prevent others from trading within their sphere of influence or otherwise discriminate against another imperial power. Nations with Spheres of Influence in China by 1914 • • • • • Britain France Japan Germany Russia The U.S. wanted two things: Equal commercial opportunity Respect for Chinese independence The relatively transparent purpose of the Open Door Notes sent by Secretary of State Hay was to keep China independent and open to trade from all nations. As the cartoon to the left suggests, U.S. policy also sought to preserve at least a modicum of Chinese sovereignty. Does the Constitution Follow the Flag? Do the inhabitants of U.S. colonies have the same rights as American citizens? Ironically, in general principle, this was the very question asked by the Founding Fathers when they were denied their demand of “No taxation without representation.” The Secretary of War wryly noted, “as near as I can make out the Constitution does follow the flag—but doesn’t quite catch up with it.” Boxer Rebellion In June 1900, a secret Chinese society (Boxers) rose to expel foreigners in China. They killed over 200 Europeans and attacked Peking buildings owned by foreign governments. The Boxer Rebellion was the first real test of the Open Door Notes. The rising lasted for 2 months before a joint European and American military force arrived in Beijing to relieve those who had taken refuge in the British compound. “China never wanted foreigners any more than foreigners wanted Chinamen, and on this question I am with the Boxers every time. The Boxer is a patriot. He loves his country better than he does the countries of other people. I wish him success. The Boxer believes in driving us out of his country. I am a Boxer too, for I believe in driving him out of our country.” Impacts on American Foreign Policy Into the 20th Century • McKinley, riding a wave of patriotism generated from success in the war, successfully defends against William Jennings Byran’s anti-imperialist campaign in the election of 1900 • The U.S. has become an imperial power and, with that turn of events, assumes the role of instructor (see cartoon above) of the peoples now newly under American rule • It now dealt on equal terms with Europe • It dominated the Western Hemisphere • It was a major power in Asia Domestic Developments at the End of the Century Deterioration in American race relations If African-American soldiers acquitted themselves well in the Spanish-American War in Cuba, it also confirmed notions of “racial superiority” and “inferior races” in the minds of many Americans. In a regrettable respect, it actually brought together whites in both North and South in a smug, self-satisfied and self-flattering union rooted in a confidence in their own racial superiority. • Republican Party Dominance The Republicans would dominate domestic politics until 1932 when the Great Depression ushered in an era of Democratic leadership. Fini