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Prepared by Patty Bostwick-Taylor,
Florence-Darlington Technical College
CHAPTER
1
The Human Body:
An Orientation
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Human Body—An Orientation
Anatomy
•Study of the structure and shape of the body
and its parts
Physiology
•Study of how the body and its parts work or
function
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Anatomy—Levels of Study
•Gross anatomy
•Large structures
•Easily observable
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Mouth (oral cavity)
Tongue
Parotid gland
Sublingual gland
Submandibular
gland
Salivary glands
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Pancreas
(Spleen)
Liver
Gallbladder
Small intestine
Anus
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Duodenum
Jejunum
lleum
Transverse
colon
Descending
colon
Ascending
colon
Cecum
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Appendix
Anal canal
Large intestine
Figure 14.1
Anatomy—Levels of Study
•Microscopic anatomy
•Structures cannot be seen with the
naked eye
•Structures can only be viewed with a
microscope
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Gastric pits
Gastric pit
Pyloric
sphincter
Surface
epithelium
Mucous
neck cells
Gastric gland
Parietal cells
Gastric
glands
Chief cells
(c)
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Figure 14.4c
Pepsinogen
HCl
Pepsin
Parietal cells
Chief cells
Enteroendocrine
cell
(d)
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Figure 14.4d
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
2 Cellular level
Cells are made
up of molecules.
Atoms
1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of cells.
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Blood
vessels
Heart
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
different types of tissues.
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Blood
vessel
(organ)
Cardio–
vascular
system
6 Organismal level
Human organisms are
made up of many organ
systems.
5 Organ system level
Organ systems consist of
different organs that work
together closely.
Figure 1.1
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Figure 1.1, step 1
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Figure 1.1, step 2
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Figure 1.1, step 3
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Figure 1.1, step 4
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Figure 1.1, step 5
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Figure 1.1, step 6
Organ System Overview
•Integumentary
•Forms the external body covering
•Protects deeper tissue from injury
•Helps regulate body temperature
•Location of cutaneous nerve receptors
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Skin
(a) Integumentary System
Forms the external body covering;
protects deeper tissue from injury;
synthesizes vitamin D; location of
cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.)
receptors and sweat and oil glands.
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Figure 1.2a
Organ System Overview
•Skeletal
•Protects and supports body organs
•Provides muscle attachment for movement
•Site of blood cell formation
•Stores minerals
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Cartilages
Joint
Bones
(b) Skeletal System
Protects and supports body
organs; provides a framework the
muscles use to cause movement;
blood cells are formed within
bones; stores minerals.
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Figure 1.2b
Organ System Overview
•Muscular
•Produces movement
•Maintains posture
•Produces heat
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Skeletal
muscles
(c) Muscular System
Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and
facial expression; maintains
posture; produces heat.
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Figure 1.2c
Organ System Overview
•Nervous
•Fast-acting control system
•Responds to internal and external change
•Activates muscles and glands
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Brain
Sensory
receptor
Spinal
cord
Nerves
(d) Nervous System
Fast-acting control system of the
body; responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.
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Figure 1.2d
Organ System Overview
•Endocrine
•Secretes regulatory hormones
•Growth
•Reproduction
•Metabolism
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Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
(parathyroid glands
on posterior aspect)
Thymus gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Testis (male)
Ovary (female)
(e) Endocrine System
Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use by
body cells.
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Figure 1.2e
Organ System Overview
•Cardiovascular
•Transports materials in body via blood
pumped by heart
•Oxygen
•Carbon dioxide
•Nutrients
•Wastes
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Heart
Blood
vessels
(f) Cardiovascular System
Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.;
the heart pumps blood.
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Figure 1.2f
Organ System Overview
•Lymphatic
•Returns fluids to blood vessels
•Cleanses the blood
•Involved in immunity
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Thoracic
duct
Lymph
nodes
Lymphatic
vessels
(g) Lymphatic System
Picks up fluid leaked from blood
vessels and returns it to blood;
disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream; houses white
blood cells involved in immunity.
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Figure 1.2g
Organ System Overview
•Respiratory
•Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
•Removes carbon dioxide
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Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchus
Left lung
(h) Respiratory System
Keeps blood constantly supplied
with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide; the gaseous exchanges
occur through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.
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Figure 1.2h
Organ System Overview
•Digestive
•Breaks down food
•Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
•Eliminates indigestible material as feces
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Oral cavity
Esophagus
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus
(i) Digestive System
Breaks food down into absorbable
units that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells;
indigestible foodstuffs are
eliminated as feces.
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Figure 1.2i
Organ System Overview
•Urinary
•Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
•Maintains acid-base balance
•Regulates water and electrolytes
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Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
(j) Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogen-containing
wastes from the body; regulates
water, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance of the blood.
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Figure 1.2j
Organ System Overview
•Reproductive
•Produces offspring
•Testes produce sperm and male hormone
•Ovaries produce eggs and female hormones
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Seminal
vesicles
Prostate
gland
Mammary
glands
(in breasts)
Uterine
tube
Ovary
Uterus
Penis
Vas
deferens
Vagina
Testis
Scrotum
(k) Male Reproductive System
(l) Female Reproductive System
Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring.
Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in
delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries
produce eggs and female sex hormones; remaining structures serve as
sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of
female breast produce milk to nourish the newborn.
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Figure 1.2k–l
Necessary Life Functions
•Maintain boundaries
•Movement
•Locomotion
•Movement of substances
•Responsiveness
•Ability to sense changes and react
•Digestion
•Breakdown and absorption of nutrients
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Necessary Life Functions
•Metabolism—chemical reactions within the
body
•Break down complex molecules into smaller
ones
•Build larger molecules from smaller ones
•Produces energy
•Regulated by hormones
•Excretion
•Eliminates waste from metabolic reactions
•Wastes may be removed in urine or feces
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Necessary Life Functions
•Reproduction
•Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
•Produces future generation
•Growth
•Increases cell size and number of cells
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Survival Needs
•Nutrients
•Chemicals for energy and cell building
•Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
vitamins, and minerals
•Oxygen
•Required for chemical reactions
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Survival Needs
•Water
•60 to 80 percent of body weight
•Most abundant chemical in the human body
•Provides for metabolic reaction
•Stable body temperature
•37°C (98°F)
•Atmospheric pressure
•Must be appropriate for gas exchange
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Respiratory system
Takes in oxygen and eliminates
carbon dioxide
Digestive system
Takes in nutrients, breaks them
down, and eliminates unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Food
O2
CO2
Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon
dioxide to disposal organs
Blood
Heart
Nutrients
CO2
O2
Urinary system
Eliminates
nitrogencontaining wastes
and excess ions
Interstitial fluid
Nutrients and wastes pass
between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid
Feces
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Integumentary system
Protects the body as a whole
from the external environment
Urine
Figure 1.3
Homeostasis
•Homeostasis—maintenance of a stable
internal environment
•A dynamic state of equilibrium
•Necessary for normal body functioning and
to sustain life
•Homeostatic imbalance
•A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in
disease
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3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
1 Stimulus
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sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Effector
5 Response
detects change.
produces
change in
variable.
4 Output: Information
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
Figure 1.4
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
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VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Figure 1.4, step 1
2 Receptor
Receptor
detects change.
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
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VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Figure 1.4, step 2
3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
detects change.
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
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VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Figure 1.4, step 3
3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
4 Output: Information
sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Effector
detects change.
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Figure 1.4, step 4
3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
1 Stimulus
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sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Effector
5 Response
detects change.
produces
change in
variable.
4 Output: Information
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
Figure 1.4, step 5
Maintaining Homeostasis
•The body communicates through neural and
hormonal control systems
•Receptor
•Responds to changes in the environment
(stimuli)
•Sends information to control center
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Maintaining Homeostasis
•Control center
•Determines set point
•Analyzes information
•Determines appropriate response
•Effector
•Provides a means for response to the
stimulus
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Feedback Mechanisms
•Negative feedback
•Includes most homeostatic control
mechanisms
•Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its
intensity
•Works like a household thermostat
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Feedback Mechanisms
•Positive feedback
•Increases the original stimulus to push the
variable farther
•In the body this only occurs in blood clotting
and during the birth of a baby
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The Language of Anatomy
•Special terminology is used to prevent
misunderstanding
•Exact terms are used for
•Position
•Direction
•Regions
•Structures
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Regional Terms
•Anterior body landmarks
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Cephalic
Frontal
Orbital
Nasal
Buccal
Oral
Mental
Cervical
Thoracic
Sternal
Axillary
Upper limb
Acromial
Deltoid
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)
Abdominal
Umbilical
Pelvic
Inguinal
(groin)
Manus (hand)
Digital
Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Pubic (genital)
Crural (leg)
KEY:
Fibular
Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Digital
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(a) Anterior/Ventral
Figure 1.5a
Regional Terms
•Posterior body landmarks
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Cephalic
Occipital (back
of head)
Upper limb
Acromial
Cervical
Brachial (arm)
Olecranal
Back (dorsal)
Scapular
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Vertebral
Lumbar
Sacral
Manus (hand)
Digital
Gluteal
Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal
Sural (calf)
Fibular
KEY:
Thorax
Pedal (foot)
Calcaneal
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Plantar
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(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Figure 1.5b
Directional Terms
•Superior (cranial or cephalad): toward the
head end or upper part of a structure or the
body; above
•Inferior (caudal): away from the head end or
toward the lower part of a structure or the
body; below
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 1.1
Directional Terms
•Ventral (anterior): toward or at the front of
the body; in front of
•Dorsal (posterior): toward or at the backside
of the body; behind
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 1.1
Directional Terms
•Medial: toward or at the midline of the body;
on the inner side of
•Lateral: away from the midline of the body;
on the outer side of
•Intermediate: between a more medial and a
more lateral structure
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Table 1.1
Directional Terms
•Proximal: close to the origin of the body
part or point of attachment to a limb to the
body trunk
•Distal: farther from the origin of a body part
or the point of attachment of a limb to the
body trunk
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Table 1.1
Directional Terms
•Superficial: toward or at the body surface
•Deep: away from the body surface; more
internal
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 1.1
Body Planes and Sections
•A sagittal section divides the body (or organ)
into left and right parts.
•A median, or midsagittal, section divides the
body (or organ) into equal left and right parts.
•A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body
(or organ) into anterior and posterior parts.
•A transverse, or cross, section divides the
body (or organ) into superior and inferior parts.
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(a) Median (midsagittal)
Vertebral
column
Rectum
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Intestines
(b) Frontal (coronal) plane
Right
lung Heart
Liver
Left
lung
Stomach Spleen
(c) Transverse plane
Liver Aorta
Spinal
cord
Spleen
Subcutaneous Stomach
fat layer
Figure 1.6
Body Cavities
•Dorsal body cavity
•Cranial cavity houses the brain
•Spinal cavity houses the spinal cord
•Ventral body cavity
•Thoracic cavity houses heart, lungs, and
others
•Abdominopelvic cavity houses digestive
system and most urinary system organs
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Cranial
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Spinal
cavity
Abdominal
cavity
Pelvic
cavity
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Diaphragm
KEY:
Dorsal body cavity
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Ventral body cavity
Figure 1.7
Right upper
quadrant
(RUQ)
Left upper
quadrant
(LUQ)
Right lower
quadrant
(RLQ)
Left lower
quadrant
(LLQ)
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Figure 1.8
Diaphragm
Stomach
Liver
Right
Left
hypohypoEpigastric
chondriac
chondriac
region
region
region
Right
lumbar
region
Umbilical
region
Left
lumbar
region
Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac
(inguinal)
(pubic)
(inguinal)
region
region
region
Gallbladder
Ascending
colon of large
intestine
Small intestine
Cecum
Appendix
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes
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Transverse
colon of large
intestine
Descending
colon of large
intestine
Initial part of
sigmoid colon
Urinary
bladder
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions
showing the superficial organs
Figure 1.9a-b