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What is perception and why is it important? What are the common perceptual distortions? What is the link between perception, attribution, and social learning? What is involved in learning by reinforcement? Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-2 Perception Process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to information from the world around them. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-3 Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-4 What do you see? Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-5 Influence Factors Stages of Perception Attention Attention Attentionand and and Selection Selection Selection Organization Organization Interpretation Interpretation Response (Feeling, thinking, acting) Retrieval Schemas/Scripts Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-6 Attention and selection Selective screening Lets in only a tiny portion of all the information available. Two types of selective screening Controlled processing Screening without conscious awareness Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-7 Schemas Cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge developed through experience about a given concept or stimulus. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-8 Script schemas A knowledge of framework that describes the appropriate sequence of event in a given situation. Self schema Contains information about a person’s own appearance, behavior, and personality. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-9 Person schemas Refer to the way individuals sort others into categories such as types of groups in terms of similar perceived features. Person-in-situation schema Combines schemas built around persons and events. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-10 You have just been told that your job has been ‘down-sized’. This has never happened to you before. Now what? 1) Take cues from your environment. 2) Pay attention to salient cues. 3) Create a new mental category (laid off). 4) Consider how others have responded. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-11 Interpretation Uncovering the reasons behind the ways stimuli are grouped. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-12 Retrieval Attention and selection, organization, and interpretation are part of memory. Information stored in memory must be retrieved in order to be used. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-13 Impression Management Systematic attempt to behave in ways that will create and maintain desired impressions in the eyes of others. When well done, impression management can help us to advance in jobs and careers, form relationships with people we admire, and even create pathways to group memberships. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-14 Stereotypes Occur when we identify someone with a group or category, and then use the attributes perceived to be associated with the group or category to describe the individual. Individual differences are obscured. Managers may not accurately understand the needs, preferences, and abilities of others in the workplace. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-15 Common Stereotypes Racial Ethnic Gender Ability Age Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-16 Halo effects Occur when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of the individual or situation. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-17 Selective perception The tendency to single out those of a situation, person, or object that for attention those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistent with one’s needs, values, or attitudes. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-18 Projection The assignment of one’s personal attributes to other individuals. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-19 Contrast effects The meaning or interpretation of something is arrived at by contrasting it with a recently occurring event or situation. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-20 Self-fulfilling prophecy The tendency to create or find in another situation or individual that which one expected to find in the first place. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-21 Think about the self-fulfilling prophecy. Which of the following would not be a good idea? a. Instill confidence in your staff. b. Identify errors in employee’s performance and refer to them often. c. Treat all new employees as if they are star performers. d. Set high performance goals. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-22 Attribution Process of developing explanations or assigning perceived causes for events. Can be classified as internal or external: Internal causes – Believed to be under an individual’s control. External causes – Seen as coming from outside a person. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-23 Distinctiveness Consistency of a person’s behavior across different situations. Consensus Likelihood of others responding in a similar way. Consistency Whether an individual responds the same way across time. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-24 Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-25 Fundamental attribution error Tendency to underestimate the influence of situational factors and to overestimate the influence of personal factors when evaluating someone else’s behavior. “Your poor performance is caused by you!” Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-26 Self-serving bias Tendency to deny personal responsibility for performance problems but to accept personal responsibility for performance success. I received an “A” because I studied. I received a “D” because the exam was too hard. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-27 Do not overlook the external causes of others’ behaviors. (Identify and confront your stereotypes, your biases, your preconceived notions.) Evaluate people based on objective factors. Do not rush to judgment http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b5ZljnMmrIs (5.13 sec) Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-28 Cultural differences in attributions : Individualistic cultures - managers more likely to attribute employee poor performance to internal causes. Negative attributes – blame team-mates for subordinates for performance problems. Collectivist cultures – overemphasize self-serving bias; managers blame themselves for group’s failure. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-29 Social learning theory Describes how learning takes place through the reciprocal interactions among people, behavior, and environment. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-30 Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-31 Self efficacy A person’s belief that he or she can perform adequately in a situation. Key factor in self-control. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-32 Reinforcement The administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior. Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual’s behavior. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-33 Classical conditioning A form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior. Stimulus Something that incites action and draws forth a response. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-34 Operant conditioning The process of controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences. Considered ‘learning by reinforcement’. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-35 Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-36 Law of effect Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated. Extrinsic rewards Positively valued work outcomes that are given to the individual by some other person. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-37 You work really hard at your job, and are not rewarded. The “law of effect” would suggest that you will a. Quit b. Keep trying to impress the right people Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-38 Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-39 Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod) Involves the use of four basic reinforcement strategies: Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement (avoidance) Punishment Extinction Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-40 Positive reinforcement Administration of positive consequences that tend to increase the likelihood of repeating the desirable behavior in similar settings. Law of contingent reinforcement – states a reward should be given when the desired behavior occurs. Law of immediate reinforcement – states a reward should be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior occurs. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-41 Shaping Creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-42 Continuous reinforcement Administering a reward each time the desired behavior occurs. Intermittent reinforcement Rewards behavior only periodically. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-43 Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-44 Negative reinforcement Uses withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desirable behavior. Also known as avoidance learning. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-45 Punishment The administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive consequences to reduce the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-46 Extinction The withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences in order to weaken undesirable behavior. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-47 Behavior modification techniques, when utilized positively in organizations, can be very powerful and effective in encouraging desired performance. Because of their potential power, they may lend themselves to inappropriate or even unethical uses. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-48