Download Attention and selection

What is perception and why is it important?
What are the common perceptual
distortions?
What is the link between perception,
attribution, and social learning?
What is involved in learning by reinforcement?
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-2
Perception
 Process by which
people select,
organize, interpret,
retrieve, and respond
to information from
the world around
them.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-3
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-4
What do you see?
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-5
Influence
Factors
Stages of Perception
Attention
Attention
Attentionand
and
and
Selection
Selection
Selection
Organization
Organization
Interpretation
Interpretation
Response
(Feeling,
thinking, acting)
Retrieval
Schemas/Scripts
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-6
Attention and selection
 Selective screening
 Lets in only a tiny portion of all the information
available.
 Two types of selective screening
 Controlled processing
 Screening without conscious awareness
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-7
Schemas
 Cognitive frameworks that represent
organized knowledge developed through
experience about a given concept or
stimulus.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-8
Script schemas
 A knowledge of framework that describes the
appropriate sequence of event in a given
situation.
Self schema
 Contains information about a person’s own
appearance, behavior, and personality.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-9
Person schemas
 Refer to the way individuals
sort others into categories
such as types of groups in
terms of similar perceived
features.
Person-in-situation schema
 Combines schemas built
around persons and events.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-10
You have just been told that your job has
been ‘down-sized’. This has never
happened to you before. Now what?
 1) Take cues from your environment.
 2) Pay attention to salient cues.
 3) Create a new mental category (laid off).
 4) Consider how others have responded.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-11
Interpretation
 Uncovering
the reasons
behind the
ways stimuli
are grouped.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-12
Retrieval
 Attention and selection, organization, and
interpretation are part of memory.
 Information stored in memory must be
retrieved in order to be used.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-13
Impression Management
 Systematic attempt to behave in ways that will
create and maintain desired impressions in the eyes
of others.
 When well done, impression management can
help us to advance in jobs and careers, form
relationships with people we admire, and even
create pathways to group memberships.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-14
Stereotypes
 Occur when we identify someone with a group or
category, and then use the attributes perceived to
be associated with the group or category to
describe the individual.
 Individual differences are obscured.
 Managers may not accurately understand the needs,
preferences, and abilities of others in the workplace.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-15
Common Stereotypes
 Racial
 Ethnic
 Gender
 Ability
 Age
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-16
Halo effects
 Occur when one attribute of a person or
situation is used to develop an overall
impression of the individual or situation.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-17
Selective perception
 The tendency to single out those of a
situation, person, or object that for attention
those aspects of a situation, person, or
object that are consistent with one’s needs,
values, or attitudes.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-18
Projection
 The assignment of one’s personal attributes
to other individuals.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-19
Contrast effects
 The meaning or interpretation of something is
arrived at by contrasting it with a recently
occurring event or situation.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-20
Self-fulfilling prophecy
 The tendency to
create or find in
another situation or
individual that which
one expected to find
in the first place.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-21
Think about the self-fulfilling prophecy. Which of
the following would not be a good idea?
a. Instill confidence in your staff.
b. Identify errors in employee’s performance and
refer to them often.
c. Treat all new employees as if they are star
performers.
d. Set high performance goals.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-22
Attribution
 Process of developing explanations or assigning
perceived causes for events. Can be classified as
internal or external:
 Internal causes – Believed to be under an individual’s
control.
 External causes – Seen as coming from outside a
person.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-23
Distinctiveness
 Consistency of a person’s behavior across
different situations.
Consensus
 Likelihood of others responding in a similar way.
Consistency
 Whether an individual responds the same way
across time.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-24
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-25
Fundamental attribution error
 Tendency to underestimate the influence of
situational factors and to overestimate the
influence of personal factors when evaluating
someone else’s behavior.
 “Your poor performance is caused by you!”
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-26
Self-serving bias
 Tendency to deny personal responsibility for
performance problems but to accept
personal responsibility for performance
success.
 I received an “A” because I studied.
 I received a “D” because the exam was too hard.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-27

Do not overlook the external causes of others’
behaviors. (Identify and confront your
stereotypes, your biases, your preconceived
notions.)

Evaluate people based on objective factors.

Do not rush to judgment
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b5ZljnMmrIs

(5.13 sec)
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-28
Cultural differences in attributions :
 Individualistic cultures - managers more likely to
attribute employee poor performance to internal
causes.
 Negative attributes – blame team-mates for
subordinates for performance problems.
 Collectivist cultures – overemphasize self-serving
bias; managers blame themselves for group’s failure.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-29
Social learning theory
 Describes how learning takes place through
the reciprocal interactions among people,
behavior, and environment.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-30
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-31
Self efficacy
 A person’s belief that he or she can perform
adequately in a situation.
 Key factor in self-control.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-32
Reinforcement
 The administration of a consequence as a
result of a behavior.
 Proper management of reinforcement can
change the direction, level, and persistence
of an individual’s behavior.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-33
Classical conditioning
 A form of learning through association that
involves the manipulation of stimuli to
influence behavior.
Stimulus
 Something that incites action and draws
forth a response.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-34
Operant conditioning
 The process of controlling behavior by
manipulating its consequences.
 Considered ‘learning by reinforcement’.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-35
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-36
Law of effect
 Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to
be repeated while behavior that results in an
unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.
Extrinsic rewards
 Positively valued work outcomes that are given to
the individual by some other person.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-37
You work really hard at your job, and
are not rewarded. The “law of
effect” would suggest that you will
a. Quit
b. Keep trying to impress the right people
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-38
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-39
Organizational Behavior Modification
(OB Mod)
 Involves the use of four basic reinforcement strategies:
 Positive reinforcement
 Negative reinforcement (avoidance)
 Punishment
 Extinction
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-40
Positive reinforcement
 Administration of positive consequences that
tend to increase the likelihood of repeating the
desirable behavior in similar settings.
 Law of contingent reinforcement – states a reward
should be given when the desired behavior occurs.
 Law of immediate reinforcement – states a reward
should be given as soon as possible after the
desired behavior occurs.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-41
Shaping
 Creation of a new behavior by the
positive reinforcement of successive
approximations to it.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-42
Continuous reinforcement
 Administering a reward each time the
desired behavior occurs.
Intermittent reinforcement
 Rewards behavior only periodically.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-43
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-44
Negative reinforcement
 Uses withdrawal of negative consequences
to increase the likelihood of repeating the
desirable behavior.
 Also known as avoidance learning.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-45
Punishment
 The administration of negative
consequences or the withdrawal of positive
consequences to reduce the likelihood of a
behavior being repeated.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-46
Extinction
 The withdrawal of the reinforcing
consequences in order to weaken
undesirable behavior.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-47
Behavior modification techniques, when
utilized positively in organizations, can be
very powerful and effective in
encouraging desired performance.
 Because of their potential power, they may
lend themselves to inappropriate or even
unethical uses.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-48