Download Chapter 12

Chapter Twelve
Personality
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–1
Did You Know That…
• According to the originator of psychodynamic
theory, Sigmund Freud, slips of the tongue
may reveal hidden motives and wishes of
which we are unaware?
• According to Carl Gustav Jung, another
psychodynamic theorist, we inherit a shared
unconscious mind containing images that can
be traced to ancestral times?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–2
Did You Know That… (cont.)
• According to a leading personality theorist,
extraverted people may require more
stimulating activities than introverted people
to maintain an optimal level of arousal?
• The “Big Five” is not the name of a new
NCAA basketball conference but the label
used to describe the leading trait theory of
personality today?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–3
Did You Know That… (cont.)
• A leading humanistic theorist, Carl Rogers,
believed that children should receive love and
approval unconditionally from their parents
regardless of their behavior at any particular
point in time?
• According to a widely held view in the 19th
century, you can learn about a person’s
character and mental abilities by examining
the pattern of bumps on the person’s head?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–4
Module 12.1
The Psychodynamic Perspective
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–5
Module 12.1 Preview Questions
• What is personality?
• What three levels of consciousness did Freud
believe comprise the human mind?
• What are the structures of personality in
Freud’s theory?
• What are psychological defense
mechanisms?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–6
Module 12.1 Preview Questions
(cont.)
• What are the five states of psychosexual
development in Freud’s theory?
• What are some of the major contributions of
other psychodynamic theorists?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–7
What Is “Personality”?
• The relatively stable set of psychological
characteristics and behavior patterns that
account for our individuality and consistency
over time.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–8
Sigmund Freud’s
Psychoanalytic Theory
• Freud’s meeting with
Jean Martin Charcot.
• Importance of instincts:
– Sexual instinct
– Aggressive instinct
• Instincts must be
balanced with social
acceptability.
• Importance of early
childhood experiences.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–9
Figure 12.1:
Levels of Consciousness
Psychoanalytic Theory:
Structure of Personality
• Id
– Unconscious drives and instincts
– Follows the pleasure principle, instant gratification
• Ego
– Follows the reality principle
– Balancing id’s demands with social approval
• Superego
– Moral guardian, conscience
– May impose self-punishment, guilt, shame
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–11
Psychoanalytic Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Repression
Denial
Reaction formation
Rationalization
Projection
Sublimation
Regression
Displacement
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–12
Psychoanalytic Theory:
Personality Development
• Psychosexual stages of development
– Characterized by changes in libido, shifting
location of erogenous zones.
– Activities pleasurable because essential to
survival.
• Conflicts emerge during each psychosexual
stage.
– Conflicts can lead to development of fixations.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–13
Psychosexual
Stages of Development
• Oral Stage: birth to 12-18 months old
– Erogenous zone is the mouth.
– Pleasure through sucking, mouthing, chewing.
• Anal Stage: 18-36 months
– Erogenous zone is the anal cavity.
– Sexual pleasure through the ability to control
elimination.
– Conflict arises from issue of toilet training.
– Anal-retentive vs. anal-expulsive personality
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–14
Psychosexual Stages of
Development (cont.)
• Phallic Stage: ages 3-6
– Erogenous zone is the phallic region.
– Core conflict is the Oedipus complex.
– Freud’s followers called female version of conflict
the Electra complex.
– Boys develop castration anxiety.
– Girls experience penis envy.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–15
Psychosexual Stages of
Development (cont.)
• Latent Stage: ages 6-12
– Sexual impulses remain dormant.
• Genital Stage: puberty to adulthood
– Attraction to opposite gender.
– Sexual energies expressed through sexual
intercourse, marriage, child bearing.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–16
Other Psychodynamic Approaches
• Beyond Sigmund Freud: neo-Freudians
• Less emphasis on sex and aggression
• Greater emphasis on social relationships,
ego, concept of self
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–17
Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology
• Also believed in role of unconscious conflicts
on behavior.
• Greater emphasis on present experiences.
• Personal unconscious consists of repressed
memories and impulses.
• Collective unconscious contains archetypes.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–18
Alfred Adler’s
Individual Psychology
• Emphasis on unique potential of each
individual.
• Conscious experience plays important role in
personality.
– Role of the creative self.
• Inferiority complex and the drive for
superiority
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–19
Karen Horney
• Critic of Freud’s view of
female development.
• Emphasized role of
social and cultural
forces.
• Importance of parentchild relationships.
– Basic anxiety
– Basic hostility
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–20
Evaluating the
Psychodynamic Perspective
• Contributions
– Detailed and comprehensive theory of personality
– Awareness of unconscious drives, impulses
• Criticisms
–
–
–
–
Overimportance of sexual and aggressive drives
Too little emphasis on social relationships
Lack of evidence and questions of validity
Untestable hypotheses, unscientific
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–21
Module 12.2
The Trait Perspective
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–22
Module 12.2 Preview Questions
• What are the three types of traits in Allport’s
trait model?
• What was Cattell’s view on the organization
of traits?
• What three traits are represented in
Eysenck’s model of personality?
• What is the “Big Five” trait model of
personality?
• What role do genes play in personality?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–23
Trait Perspective
• Personality consists of relatively enduring
personal characteristics called traits.
• Trait theorists focus on:
– How people differ in traits.
– How traits can be measured.
– How traits are organized.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–24
Gordon Allport
• Personality traits are physical entities
embedded in the brain.
– Inherited but influenced by experience
• Hierarchy of traits
– Cardinal traits
– Central traits
– Secondary traits
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–25
Raymond Cattell
• Surface Traits: Characteristics of personality
inferred from observations of behavior.
• Source Traits: More general traits of
personality.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–26
Figure 12.2:
Cattell’s
16PF
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–27
Hans Eysenck
• Described personality using three major
traits:
– Introversion-extraversion
– Neuroticism
– Psychoticism
• Biological differences responsible for
individual variations in personality traits.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–28
Figure 12.3:
Eysenck’s
Personality
Types
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–29
Five Factor Model (FFM)
• “Big Five” personality factors:
–
–
–
–
–
Neuroticism
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–30
Genetic Basis of Traits
• Heredity plays important role in shaping
personality.
• Focus is on the interactions of biology and
environment.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–31
Evaluating the Trait Perspective
• Contributions
– Has intuitive appeal.
– Led to development of personality tests.
• Drawbacks
– Labels rather than explain behavior.
– Behavior may not be so stable across time and
situations as assumed by trait theorists.
• Emerging view is that behavior involves an
interaction between traits and situational
factors.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–32
Module 12.3
The Social-Cognitive Perspective
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–33
Module 12.3 Preview Questions
• What are expectancies and subjective
values?
• What is reciprocal determinism?
• What are situation and person variables?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–34
Traditional Behavioral View
• Personality is shaped by environmental
influences.
– Personality consists of the sum total of an
individual’s learned behavior.
• All behavior is learned on the basis of
classical and operant conditioning.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–35
Social-Cognitive Theory
• Adopts a broader view of learning
• To explain behavior, must take into account:
– Cognitive aspects of behavior such as
expectancies.
– Social aspects of behavior such as imitation.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–36
Julian Rotter
• Explaining, predicting behavior depends on
knowing individual’s:
–
–
–
–
Reinforcement history
Expectancies
Subjective values
Locus of control
• External versus internal
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–37
Figure 12.4: Bandura’s Model of
Reciprocal Determinism
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–38
Albert Bandura
• Emphasized role of observational learning.
• Two types of expectancies:
– Outcome expectations
– Efficacy expectations
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–39
Walter Mischel
• Situational variables
• Person variables
–
–
–
–
–
Expectancies
Subjective values
Competencies
Encoding strategies
Self-regulatory systems and plans
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–40
Evaluating the Social-Cognitive
Perspective
• Contributions
– Improved understanding of relationship between
behavior and environmental factors.
– Broadening of learning theory to include cognitive
influences.
• Criticisms
– Fails to include unconscious influences, heredity.
– Little focus on subjective experience.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–41
Module 12.4
The Humanistic Perspective
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–42
Module 12.4 Preview Questions
• What is self-theory?
• How do collectivistic and individualistic
cultures view the concept of self?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–43
Carl Rogers
• Inner drive to strive
toward selfactualization.
• Personality expressed
through the conscious
experience of directing
self towards fulfilling our
unique potential.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–44
Roger’s Self-Theory
• Self as center of the human experience
• Development of self-esteem
– Unconditional positive regard
– Conditional positive regard
• Self-esteem and self-ideals
• Development of client-centered therapy
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–45
Abraham Maslow
• The innate drive toward self-actualization
shapes our personality.
• Drive motivates us to develop our unique
potentials as human beings.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–46
Culture and Self-Identity
• Collectivistic Cultures: Emphasis on people’s
social roles and obligations.
– Value group goals over individual goals.
– Emphasis on communal values.
• Individualistic Cultures: Emphasis on
individual identity and personal
accomplishments.
– Idealize independence and self-sufficiency
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–47
Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective
• Contributions
– Profound impact on society.
– Focused attention on need to understand
subjective or conscious experience of individuals.
– Influence of client-centered therapy.
– Helped restore concept of self to psychology.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–48
Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective
• Criticisms
– Difficult to scientifically study conscious
experience.
– Possible negative consequences from emphasis
on self-fulfillment.
– Does drive for self-actualization really exist?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–49
Module 12.5
Personality Tests
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–50
Module 12.5 Preview Questions
• What are self-report personality inventories?
• What are projective tests of personality?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–51
Measuring Personality
• Historical Attempts
– Examination of facial
features
– Phrenology
• Modern Strategies
– Self-report personality
inventories
– Projective tests
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–52
Self-Report Personality
Inventories
• Objective tests
– Limited response options.
– Construction based on research.
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI)
– Constructed to help diagnose mental disorders.
– Raw scores converted into standard scores.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–53
Figure 12.5: Sample MMPI-2 Profiles
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–54
Evaluation of Self-Report Personality
Tests
• Criticisms
– Susceptible to potential response biases.
• Benefits
– Relatively inexpensive to administer and score.
– People may be more willing to disclose personal
information.
– May be used in prediction of behavior.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–55
Projective Tests
• Unstructured or ambiguous stimuli to be
interpreted.
• Assumption that people “project” needs,
drives, motives through their responses.
• Responses must be interpreted.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–56
Figure 12.6: Rorschach Inkblot
Figure 12.7:
TAT Drawing
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–58
Evaluation of Projective Tests
• Drawbacks
– Scoring of responses based on subjective
impressions.
– Problem of stimulus pull.
– Questions about overall validity and utility.
• Contributions
– Tests can yield valuable information about
personality unobtainable through self-report tests
or interviews.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–59
Figure 12.8: Validity Coefficients of
Psychological and Medical Tests
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–60
Figure 12.8: Validity Coefficients of
Psychological and Medical Tests (cont.)
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–61
Module 12.6
Application: Building Self-Esteem
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–62
Module 12.6 Preview Question
• What are some ways of building self-esteem?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–63
Building Self-Esteem
• Acquire competencies
• Set realistic, achievable goals
• Enhance self-efficacy expectations
• Create a sense of meaningfulness in your life
• Challenge perfectionistic expectations
• Challenge need for constant approval
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12–64