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Chapter 8
The Motivation to Work
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Module 8.1:
An Introduction to Motivation
• Central position of motivation in
psychology
• Motivation concerns conditions
responsible for variations in intensity,
quality, & direction of ongoing behavior
– (Vinacke,’62)
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Brief History of Motivation
Theory in I-O Psychology
• First theories anchored motivation in notions of
instincts (Freud)
• “Instinct” gradually replaced by terms like need,
motive, & drive
– (Maslow; Herzberg, Alderfer, Deci)
• Behaviorist approach (Skinner)
• Field theory (Lewin) - Group dynamics
– B = f (p*e)
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Metaphors For Motivation
(machine or Godlike? Weiner, ’91)
• Person as machine
– People’s behaviors & actions are
reflexive & involuntary, performed
without conscious awareness
– Pushed by internal needs
– Pulled by environmental stimuli
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Metaphors For Motivation (cont’d)
Godlike
• Person as scientist
– Seek information, test hypotheses
• with limited rationality; (Simon,‘60; Tversky, ’82)
• Person as judge (attributions to self, other)
– Individual seeks information about extent person &
others perceived as responsible for positive & negative
events
– Hypothesizes about foundation
for events & actions of others
• Person as intentional
– Develops goals & plans with expectancies
• (Tolman, 1930s)
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Meaning & Importance of
Motivation in the Workplace
• Motivation & performance
Situational
(Motivation x Ability) –
Constraints
= PERFORMANCE
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Motivation & Work-Life Balance
• Investigates whether satisfaction one
experiences at work is affected by
satisfaction one experiences in nonwork & vice versa
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Motivation & Attitudes
• Attitudes
– Relatively stable feelings or beliefs
directed toward specific persons, groups,
ideas, or jobs
– Have become less important in study of
work motivation over last several decades
• “Under what work conditions are attitudes
important?”
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Motivation & Personality
• Consistent relationships exist between
personality characteristics & performance
motivation
• Neuroticism negatively related to
performance motivation
• Conscientiousness positively related to
performance motivation
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Module 8.2: Motivational Theories
– Classic Approaches
• Person-as-machine theories
– Maslow’s need theory
• Internal mechanical theory
• All humans have basic set of needs that
express themselves over life span of
individual as internal “pushes” or drives
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Figure 8.1
Maslow’s Hierarchy
of Needs
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Maslow’s Need Theory
• Physiological needs
– Basic needs like food & water
• Security needs
– Need to produce a secure environment
• Love or social needs
– Desire to be accepted by others
• Esteem needs
– Being respected for accomplishments or capabilities
• Self-actualization
– Desire to develop capabilities to fullest
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Maslow’s Need Theory
• Employer needs to know at what need level
individual worker is operating
• Group of workers may all be functioning at
different need levels
• Fits person-as-machine metaphor
• Are need insatiable? (Hall & Nougaim, ’68;
Lawler and Suttle, ’72)
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Variations on Maslow’s Theory
• Two-factor theory (Herzberg, 1966)
– 2 basic needs, not 5
– Needs are independent (not hierarchical)
– 1) Hygiene needs
• Maslow’s physical & security needs
– 2) Motivator needs
• Maslow’s social, esteem, & self-actualization needs
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Variations on Maslow’s
Theory (cont'd)
• ERG theory (Alderfer, 1972)
– 3 basic needs, not 2 or 5
– Levels:
• Existence (E)
• Relatedness (R)
• Growth (G)
– Has not garnered much support
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Reinforcement Theory:
An External mechanical theory
• Behavior depends on 3 elements:
stimulus, response, & reward
• Contingent reward
– Reward depends on response
• Intermittent & continuous rewards
– Intermittent rewards produce higher
performance levels
Martial Colomb/Getty Images
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Person-as-Godlike Theories:
The Scientist Model
• Vroom’s VIE theory
– Valence
• Strength of person’s preference for particular outcome.
– Instrumentality
• Perceived relationship between performance &
attainment of a certain outcome.
– Expectancy
• Perceived relationship between effort and performance.
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Scientist Models (cont'd)
• Dissonance theory
– Suggests that tension exists when
individuals hold incompatible thoughts
– Assumes that individuals always seek
some sense of “balance” & will direct
their behavior toward seeking &
maintaining that balance
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Scientist Models:
Equity theory
• Individuals look at world in terms of
comparative inputs & outcomes
• Compare their inputs & outcomes to those of
“comparison others”
Figure 8.2
Mathematical
Description of
Equity Theory
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Module 8.3: Modern Approaches
to Work Motivation
• Person-as-intentional
– Goal-setting theory
• Notion of goal as a motivational force
• Distinction between goal acceptance & goal
commitment
Lawrence M. Sawyer/Getty Images
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Diagram of Goal Theory
Figure 8.3
A Diagram of Goal Theory
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Goal-Setting Theory (cont'd)
• Feedback loop important between
knowledge of results & intermediate stages
• Control theory
– Based on principle of feedback loop
– Assumes individuals compare a standard to an
actual outcome & adjust their behavior to bring
outcome into agreement with a standard
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Control Theory View of
Goal Setting
Figure 8.4
Control Theory View of Goal Setting
Source: Austin and Klein (1996).
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Relationships Among Needs,
Motives, Goals, & Performance
Figure 8.5
The Relationships among Needs,
Motives, Goals, and Performance
Source: Locke & Latham (1996).
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Control Theories & the Concept of
Self-Regulation
Figure 8.6
Simple Control
Systems Model
Source: Taylor,
Fisher, & Ilgen (1984).
• Self-regulation is compatible with control theory
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Self-Efficacy in Modern
Motivation Theory
• Belief in one’s capacity to perform a
specific task or reach a specific goal
– Developed & increased by:
• Mastery experiences
• Modeling
• Social persuasion
• Physiological states
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Action Theory (Rubicon theory)
• Broad consideration of role of intention in
motivated behavior & connection between
intention & action
• Action phases in active goal pursuit
–
–
–
–
Predecisional
Postdecisional
Actional
Evaluative
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Action Theory (cont'd)
• Action has 2 elements
– Action process
Figure 8.7
The Action Process
Source: Frese & Zapf (1994).
– Action structure
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Common Themes in Modern
Approaches
• Intention plays key role in motivated behavior
• Concept of feedback critical in considering anything
but the simplest act at one point in time
• Theory should include element of person-as-scientist
• Theory should include concept of self-assessment
• Some non-cognitive element in the “ultimate”
motivation theory
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Entrepreneurs (EO):
Role of Pattern Recognition
(Frese & Fay, 2001)
Figure 8.8
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Module 8.4:
Practical Issues in Motivation
• Motivation can be measured
• Motivational trait questionnaire (MTQ)
– Measures 6 aspects of “general” motivation
• Desire to learn
• Mastery
• Other referenced goals
• Competitiveness
• Worry
• Emotionality
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Entrepreneurial Orientation
(Frese et al.)
• Personality characteristics:
– PI: Personal Initiative
• Self starter; proactive
– AO: Achievement Orientation
• Need for achievement
– RT: Risk Taking
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Measuring Motivation
• Judge & Ilies, (2002)
– Conscientiousness & emotional stability
• Erez & Judge (2001)
– “core self-evaluations”
• Kanfer (Heggestad & Kanfer, 2001)
– Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ)
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Cross-Cultural Issues in
Motivation
• Hofstede’s cultural theory
– Cultures differ on 5 dimensions
D. Normark/PhotoLink/Getty Images
• Collectivism/individualism
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Masculinity/femininity
• Power dimensions
• Long-term vs. short-term orientation
– Application to MTQ
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Cross-Cultural Issues in
Motivation
(cont'd)
(Erez, 1997)
• Types of motivational practices employed
by managers across all cultures
–
–
–
–
Differential distribution of rewards
Participation in goal setting & decision making
Design & redesign of jobs & organizations
Quality improvement
• How would you modify these practices to fit an
organization you have worked for?
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Generational Differences &
Work Motivation
• Generation
– Defined by group
members who share
birth years &
significant life events
– e.g., Baby Boomers,
Generation Xers,
Generation Yers
D. Berry/PhotoLink/Getty Images
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Generational Differences (cont'd)
• Generation Xers vs. Baby Boomers
– Younger employees appear to be more “me”
oriented
– Today’s workers value “pride in work” less
than workers of 1974
– Work is less important now than 25 years ago
– Work becomes less idealized as workers age
– ? Do Gen Xers cheat more than previous ones?
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Motivational Interventions
Hackman & Oldham JCM
• Contingent rewards
• Job enrichment (Tied to 5 job characteristics)
• Skill variety
• Task identity
• Task significance
• Autonomy
• Task feedback
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Motivational Interventions (cont'd)
• Productivity Measurement &
Enhancement System (ProMES)
– Utilizes goal setting, rewards, & feedback
to increase motivation & performance
– Evidence shows significant gains in
productivity following use of ProMES
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ProMES (Prichard, ’92)
Steps for Implementation
1) Forming a design team
2) Identifying objectives
3) Identifying indicators
4) Defining contingencies
5) Designing the feedback system
6) Giving & responding to feedback
7) Monitoring the system
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Example Feedback Report
from ProMES
Figure 8.9
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