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The Copernican Revolution
The Earth moves and Science is no
longer common sense
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Nicholas Copernicus
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Studied medicine at
University of Crakow
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1473-1543
Discovered math and
astronomy.
Continued studies at
Bologna, Padua,
eventually took
degree in Canon Law
at University of
Ferrara.
Appointed Canon of
Cathedral of Frombork
(Frauenberg).
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Copernicus' interests

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A “Renaissance Man”
Mathematics, astronomy, medicine,
law, mysticism, Hermeticism
Viewed astronomy as a central
subject for understanding nature.
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Viewed mathematics as central to
astronomy
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The Julian calendar

The Julian Calendar, introduced in
45 BCE, was a great improvement
over previous calendars, but by the
16th century, it was registering 10
days ahead of the astronomical
events it should have tracked.
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The Julian Calendar had 365 days per
year and one extra “leap day” every 4
years.
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Copernicus’ Task


The Julian calendar was associated
with Ptolemy.
Copernicus believed that Ptolemy’s
system was at fault and need a
(perhaps minor) correction.
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E.g. Mars' orbit intersects orbit of Sun.
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On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres

Studied astronomy over 30 years,
culminating in publication of On the
Revolutions in 1543
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This date traditionally marks the
beginning of the Scientific Revolution.
It is the same year as the publication of
Vesalius’ On the Fabric of the Human
Body.
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The conflicting views of ancient
philosophy



Plato: the Forms (e.g. mathematics)
were reality.
Aristotle: the Forms only describe
an underlying physical reality.
This led to conflicting
interpretations in astronomy
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In particular, the problem of the
planets.
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Solutions to the problem of the planets

Aristotelian:

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The spheres of
Eudoxus
The superlunar
realm is filled with
crystalline shells.
 A physical reality
Poor accuracy
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Solutions to the problem of the planets

Platonic:

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The Ptolemy
Epicycle/Deferent
system
 A formal
mathematical
system only
No physical
meaning
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Medieval reconciliation of Aristotle and
Plato



Epicycles and
concentric spheres.
Epicycles like ball
bearings running in
carved out channels.
Ptolemaic
mathematical
analysis, with a
physical
interpretation.
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The Problem of the Equant


Physically impossible
to rotate evenly
around a point not at
the geometric centre.
Could dispense with
the equant if planets
revolved around sun
(while sun revolved
around the stationary
Earth).
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The Problem of Mars' Orbit


Mars' orbit would cut into orbit of
Sun around Earth.
Solution: Leave the Sun stationary
and make the Earth move.
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The Copernican System

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The Earth is a planet, circling the
Sun.
The Moon is not a planet, but a
satellite circling the Earth.
The “Fixed” stars truly are fixed, not
just fixed to the celestial sphere.
The Equant point is not required.
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The Three Motions of the Earth

1. Daily rotation on its axis
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Replaces the movement of the
celestial sphere.
Though counter-intuitive,
Copernicus argued that it was
simpler for the relatively small
Earth to turn on its axis every
day from west to east than for
the gigantic heavens to make
a complete revolution from
east to west daily.
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The Three Motions of the Earth

2. Annual revolution around the Sun.
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Accounts for retrograde motion of the
planets—makes them an optical illusion.
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The Three Motions of the Earth

3. Rotation of
Earth's NorthSouth axis, once a
year, around an
axis perpendicular
to the ecliptic.
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S
Provides the
seasons, and
incidentally
accounts for the
precession of the
equinoxes.
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The Calendar and the Church


For the Christian Church, it was
vitally important to know what day
it was.
The segments of the church year
required different prayers, different
rituals, and different celebrations.
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E.g. Easter is the first Sunday after the
first full moon after the vernal equinox.
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The Council of Trent

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The Council of Trent was set up in
1545 to deal with the Protestant
threat to Catholicism.
It also undertook to repair the
calendar.
The Council used Copernicus’ new
system to reform and reset the
calendar.
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The Gregorian Calendar


In 1582, Pope Gregory adopted a new
calendar to replace the Julian calendar.
The Gregorian calendar, which we use
today, has 365 days per year, with one
extra day every fourth year.

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But not if the year is a century year.
Unless it is divisible by 400.
Hence it adds 100-3=97 days every 400 years
– three less than the Julian calendar.
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Copernicus' Style of Argument

Pythagorean/Platonic




Mathematics is for mathematicians.
The reality is in the mathematical
elegance; other considerations
secondary.
Secretive and/of uninterested in the
riff-raff of popular opinion.
Ad hoc argument
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Solutions to problems found by logic
without supporting evidence.
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Problems Remaining in Copernicus

1. The moving Earth.
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Why can we not detect the motion of
the Earth, which is very fast at the
surface?
Why do the clouds not all rush off to
the west as the Earth spins toward the
East?
Why is there not always a strong East
wind?
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Problems Remaining in Copernicus

2. Phases of Venus
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If Venus is sometimes on the same side of the sun as the Earth
and sometimes across from the sun, it should appear different at
different times. It should show phases, like the moon
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Problems Remaining in Copernicus

3. Stellar parallax



Because the Earth
moves around the
sun, it gets
sometimes closer
and sometimes
farther from certain
stars.
The Earth at position
1 is farther from
stars 1 and 2 than at
position 2.
The angle between
the stars at a should
be smaller than the
angle at b
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Copernicus’ ad hoc answers

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1. We don’t notice movement because the
Earth carries everything around with it
(the air, the clouds, ourselves).
2. Venus does not show phases because it
has its own light (like the Sun and the
stars).
3. We do not see stellar parallax because
the entire orbit of the Earth around the
Sun is as a point compared to the size of
the celestial sphere.
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It does not matter if it is true….

The "Calculating Device“ viewpoint.

Typical of the way
Phythagorean/Platonic conceptions are
presented to the public.

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That they are really just convenient
fictions.
For example, the preface to On the
Revolutions by Andreas Osiander.
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From Osiander’s Preface

There have already been widespread reports about
the novel hypotheses of this work, which declares
that the earth moves whereas the sun is at rest in the
center of the universe.… [I]t is the duty of an
astronomer to compose the history of the celestial
motions through careful and expert study. Then he
must conceive and devise the causes of these motions
or hypotheses about them. Since he cannot in any
way attain to the true causes, he will adopt whatever
suppositions enable the motions to be computed
correctly from the principles of geometry for the
future as well as for the past.… For these hypotheses
need not be true nor even probable. On the contrary,
if they provide a calculus consistent with the
observations, that alone is enough.
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The Copernican system

An illustration
from On the
Revolutions.
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Note the
similarity to
Ptolemy’s
system.
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Euclidean structure, just like Ptolemy

Just as Ptolemy did, Copernicus
structured his work to mimic Euclid’s
Elements.
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No surprise since Copernicus was looking to
revise Ptolemy, but this served to reinforce
Euclid as the model for a serious scientific
theory.
They both started with a list of “axioms.” For
Euclid these were self-evident truths (e.g., if
equals be added to equals, the results are
equal), but for Ptolemy and Copernicus, their
“self-evidence” needed justification.
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Ptolemy’s “Euclid-like” assumptions
1.
The heavens move spherically.
2.
The Earth is spherical.
3.
Earth is in the middle of the
heavens.
4.
The Earth has the ratio of a point
to the heavens.
5.
The Earth is immobile.
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Copernicus’ parallel assumptions
1.
That the Universe is Spherical.
2.
That the Earth also is Spherical.
3.
How Earth, with the Water on it, forms one Sphere.
4.
That the Motion of the Heavenly Bodies is Uniform, Circular,
and Perpetual, or Composed of Circular Motions.
5.
Whether Circular Motion
concerning its position.
6.
Of the Vastness of the Heavens compared with the Size of
the Earth.
7.
Why the Ancients believed that the Earth is at rest, like a
Center, in the Middle of the Universe.
8.
The Insufficiency of these Arguments, and their Refutation.
9.
Whether more than one Motion can be attributed to the
Earth, and of the center of the Universe.
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belongs
to
the
Earth,
and
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Ptolemy’s and Copernicus’ “axioms”
side by side
The heavens move
spherically.
1.
That the Universe is Spherical.
2.
That the Earth also is Spherical.
2.
The Earth is
spherical.
3.
How Earth, with the Water on it, forms
one Sphere.
3.
Earth is in the middle
of the heavens.
4.
That the Motion of the Heavenly Bodies is
Uniform, Circular, and Perpetual, or
Composed of Circular Motions.
4.
The Earth has the
ratio of a point to the
heavens.
5.
Whether Circular Motion belongs to the
Earth, and concerning its position.
6.
Of the Vastness of the Heavens compared
with the Size of the Earth.
7.
Why the Ancients believed that the Earth
is at rest, like a Center, in the Middle of
the Universe.
8.
The Insufficiency of these Arguments, and
their Refutation.
9.
Whether more than one Motion can be
attributed to the Earth, and of the center
of the Universe.
1.
5.
The Earth is
immobile.
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