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CHAPTER 30
CONSOLIDATION OF
LATIN AMERICA
1810 – 1930
THEMES
• Latin America in the 19th century
– Shaped by internal divisions
– Threats from foreign imperialism
– Cross border disputes
• Its political leaders
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Tended to begin as liberals, democrats
Ended up often as dictators
Shaped in the era of Enlightenment beliefs
Accepted concepts common in the West
• Progress
• Property Rights
• New nations
– Faced problems inherited from their colonial past
– Largely dependent on the international economic system
COMING OF REVOLUTIONS
• By the late 18th century
– Creole elites in Latin America prepared to separate
– Fear of racial, class conflicts prevented action
• Revolution occurred
– Haitian Revolution occurred during French Revolution
• Issue was slavery and its abolition
• Leaders espoused ideas of French Enlightenment
– Only after the Napoleonic wars did real action occur
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Disrupted the government of Spain
Replaced legitimate Spanish king with Napoleon’s brother
Spanish colonies forced to go it alone
In 1810s
– Spain tried to restore its traditional rule prior to Napoleonic Wars
– Latin American leaders not willing to go back to the old ways
CAUSES OF CHANGE
• Revolutions in Latin America part of a series of rebellions
• Often called Atlantic Revolutions
– American Revolution 1776 – 1783
– French Revolution 1789 – 1799
• Haiti 1791 – 1802
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Slaves under Toussaint L'Ouverture
Successfully overthrew the colonial government of St. Domingue
Established the independent republic of Haiti
Adopted radical aspects of the French revolution; called Black Jacobins
Specter of black rebellion in Haiti frightened Creole elites of Latin America.
• Latin America 1810s – 1822
– Breakdown of the Spanish monarchy during the Napoleonic wars
– Creoles set up independent governments
– Claimed to rule in the name of the exiled Spanish monarch
SPANISH-AMERICAN STRUGGLES
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Rebellion in Mexico
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Began in 1810
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Second revolutionary movement with more Creole support broke out in 1820
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Simon Bolívar emerged as the leader of the revolutionary forces
Between 1817 and 1822 he defeated Spanish forces in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador
Formed the new nation of Gran Colombia
After 1830, these nations split into independent states
In southern South America
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Central America separated from Mexico in 1838
Central America broke up into separate republics in the 1840s and 1850s
In northern South America
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Royalist Creole military officer Augustín de Iturbide switches sides
Seized Mexico City ; proclaimed Iturbide emperor in 1821
Mexico initially maintained control over Central America
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Under the leadership of Father Miguel de Hidalgo
Called on the support of mestizos and Indians
Hidalgo's movement failed for lack of Creole support
Morelos Rebellion Gives Way to Iturbide
The revolutionary leader was José de San Martín.
San Martín mobilized resistance in his native Argentina then crossed the Andes to Chile
By 1824, San Martín had carried the revolution into the most conservative colony of Peru
He defeated the Spanish forces there.
All of Spanish South America had won independence by 1825.
BRAZILIAN INDEPENDENCE
• Independence in Brazil achieved by different methods
• Early movements for independence failed
• White population feared slave uprisings
• 1807 – 1820
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Portuguese royal family fled Portugal in face of French invasion
Emigrated to Brazil, set up a government in exile
King João VI ruled empire from Rio de Janeiro
Brazilian ports were opened to international commerce.
King returned to Portugal in 1820
His son proclaimed independence in Brazil in 1822
Brazil became a monarchy under Pedro I.
PROBLEMS OF THE NEW NATIONS
• Most of the independent nations
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Established representative governments
Rights to private property and free trade
Less agreement on position of Roman Catholic Church
Slavery abolished in all except Brazil, Spanish colonies
• Voting rights
– Tended to be restricted by race to favor Creoles
– Women remained without voting rights
• Indian populations and people of mixed origins
– Remained outside the egalitarian principles
– Marginalized within societies
POLITICAL FRAGMENTATION
• Mexico
– Quickly abandoned its experiment with monarchy
– Established a republic in 1832
– Government remained unstable until the 1860s
• Central America
– Initial attempts to form a unified government failed
– Gave way to individual states in 1838
• Cuba and Puerto Rico remained within the orbit of Spanish colonialism.
• Consolidation also failed in South America
– New Granada failed in 1830.
– Attempts of Rio de la Plata to created a political union failed
• Paraguay, Uruguay, and Chile remained independent
– Peru and Bolivia
• Temporarily united but formed separate governments in 1839
– Poor transportation and communication magnified problems of integration.
CAUDILLOS, POLITICS, CHURCH
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Caudillos
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Governmental Philosophies
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Decades of war gave rise to regional military figures
Caudillos dominated local areas
Sometimes seized national governments
Caudillos often operated out of self-interest
Sometimes sought support from regional elites or from Indians, peasants, or the poor
The degree of centralization the new republican governments should have was issue
Federalists wished regional governments to establish policies
Centrists wanted powerful, central administrations
Liberals tended to support federalist policies
Conservatives wanted centralized governments, corporate institutions, such as Catholic Church.
Liberals attempted to limit the role of the Church in civil affairs
Political parties representing these points of view sprang up in many of the new republics.
Leaders
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Regardless of political view, leaders in Latin America tended to come from wealthy landowners
Rapid political change was the rule in Latin America in the first half century after independence
Constitutions and leadership came and went swiftly
Many military coups – military and strong army officers at the center of most changes
Brazil, with its monarchy, was perhaps the most stable government in the region
GREAT BRITAIN IN REGION
• Great Britain's Role
– Recognized Latin American independence
– Actively forestalled plans to restore Spanish empire
• The United States
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Also supported the independence movement
Gave arms, money and refuge to leaders
Promulgated the Monroe Doctrine of 1823
Britain used the Doctrine to support its own ideas
• Britain's support for the new nations
– Tied to the opening of trade with Latin America
– Britain replaced Spain as the region's largest trading partner
– British dominance
• Hindered the development of Latin American industries
• Reinforced economic dependence of Latin America in world trade
MID-CENTURY STAGNATION
• From 1820 to 1850
– Economy of Latin America remained stagnant
• After 1850
– In response to European demand for products
– Economy quickened
• Enhanced trade
– Permitted greater state development of infrastructure
– Roads and railroads
– Strongest in Peru, Mexico, Argentina, Chile
• Pattern was established
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Economy strictly dependent on world trade network
Export of primary products into world system
Uneasy alliances between peasants and conservatives
Prevented rapid economic change proposed by urban middle class
LIBERALS, ECONOMIC RESURGENCE
• European economy 1875 – 1900
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Produced great demand for Latin American products
Economies expanded rapidly.
Economic growth created support for liberal policies
Led to liberal governments after 1860
• European economic models
– Did not fit Latin American economies, often failed
– Immigrants from Europe entered Latin America
• Filled labor vacuum created by abolition of slavery
• Ignored Native American populations
– Wealthy landowners
• Continued to monopolize the countryside
• At the expense of small farmers, Indians, poor Blacks
MEXICO 1865 – 1910
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The federalist constitution of 1824
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Failed to address the inequitable distribution of land
Failed to address the status of the Indian population
Abandoned in favor of military leadership
– 1835 – 1855
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Antonio López de Santa Anna
Served as the most important military and political figure in Mexico.
Santa Anna enjoyed mixed results in fighting off foreign attempts to intervene in Mexico.
Anglo-American settlers in province of Texas rebelled and declared independence
Failure to suppress the Texas independence movement led to the US’ annexation of region
– US won the Mexican-American War
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Forced the cession of Texas, California, and much of Mexico north of the Rio Grande River.
Called the Treat y of Guadalupe Hidalgo
– Mexico's failures in foreign policy
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Led to the removal of Santa Anna as the chief political figure of the republic
Liberal rebellion against the caudillo resulted in Santa Anna's ouster
– La Reforma, Jaurez, and The French Intervention
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Creation of a liberal constitution
Conservatives rejected liberal constitution and turned to France as an ally
French forces overthrew republic, placed Maximilian of Habsburg on throne as emperor in 1862
French forces were withdrawn, liberals returned to power under Benito Juárez in 1867
Juárez continued to govern until his death in 1872.
ARGENTINA
• The port of Buenos Aires dominated the region of Rio de la Plata
• In 1820s
– Liberal government established in port
– Sought to stimulate the economy
• The leader's preference for a strong, central government
• Provoked the opposition of cattlemen in the plains outside the port
• By 1831
– Conservative government under Juan Manuel de Rosas
• Replaced the liberals
• Rosas's federalism favored the ranchers at the expense of Indians.
• After Rosas's fall in 1852
– Period of political confusion ensued until creation of united Argentina in 1862
– Liberal reformers sought to manipulate the economic boom after the 1860s.
• Using profits from increased trade
• Liberal government established education systems, built roads, railroads
– The liberal government carried out the final conquest of Indians in Argentina.
BRAZIL: FROM EMPIRE TO REPUBLIC
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In Brazil, a functioning republic existed behind the facade of monarchy
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Between 1831 and 1840
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Broadened the labor force and reduced the need for slavery.
Brazil’s white population surpassed its Black and Mixed Population for the first time
Italians formed a major group of the immigrants
Slavery
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As coffee production expanded
Slavery was intensified as a source of coercive labor.
Extensive European immigration into Brazil
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Dom Pedro II ruled in his own name as a liberal
Sought to increase economic growth.
Improved the country's infrastructure
Sought foreign investments to capitalize internal projects.
Brazilian economy was revolutionized by emergence of coffee as an export crop
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Regional governments opposed centralized rule from Rio de Janeiro
After 1840
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Independence was achieved in 1822 under Dom Pedro I
Pedro I was deposed in 1831
A series of regencies ruled in the name of the young Dom Pedro II
Finally abolished in 1888
Abolition movement gained force in 1840s
Gradual emancipation and freeing of new born children, youth occurred earlier
Empire abolished
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Weakened by long participation in an unpopular war and by opposition from the Church
Landowners furious at monarchy for support of abolition movement
1889, a military coup deposed the emperor and established a republic.
SOCIETY IN SEARCH OF DEFINITION
• Tension of Heritages
– Tension in Latin American culture between
• Heritage of Europe
• Heritage of the Americas (Creole culture)
– Indian, Black cultures still marginalized
• End of Spanish colonial dominance
– Opened Latin America to other European influences
– French neoclassical tradition was particularly influential.
– Romanticism
• Shifted Latin American attentions to Americanisms
• Symbols such as Indians, gauchos, and slaves.
– Historical studies reflected European concepts of positivism, progress
• By 1870s, liberalism produced more realistic literary efforts
• It often criticized social and political systems.
• Popular culture remained unaffected by trends among the elite.
GENDER, RACE, CLASS
• Women
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Active in the independence movements
Gained little power during the 19th century
Excluded from active participation in politics
Remained subject to patriarchal authority in their households
But did have broader access to public education, positions as teachers
Educated women were in the forefront of the new feminist movement
• Color and Ethnicity
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Legal distinctions were often removed
Old social hierarchy based on color and ethnicity was tacitly retained
Indians remained outside the social system of Creoles, mestizos
Liberal decades led to increasing control of resources, land by creoles
• After the 1870s
• Economic change, immigration fostered creation of greater urban centers
• But Latin America remained predominantly agrarian
• Largely dependent on world trade with few of the modern social classes
GREAT BOOM
• A Change Occurs
– Latin American export economy
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Produced a social, political alliance
Between large landowners, miners, and export merchants
All depended on commerce for prosperity.
All of Latin America depended on exports to Europe
– Complete dependence
• Made Latin American economy vulnerable to shifts in markets
• Changes in demand and prices help, hurt region
• Exports dramatically increased between 1870 and 1900
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Expanding economy attracted capital from abroad
Money flowed in from Europe (UK), the United States
Foreign capital provided the impetus for expansion
Also placed Latin American industries, transportation in foreign hands
MEXICO AND ARGENTINA
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Mexico and the Porfirato
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Porfirio Díaz elected president of the Mexican republic.
Díaz's government attracted foreign investment
Built up the nation's infrastructure,and initiated industrialization
Although the appearance of democracy was retained
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Díaz's government suppressed all political opposition
Much of economic growth was at the expense of urban laborers, the peasantry
Both of which were largely Native American
– In 1910 popular dissatisfaction with Díaz's regime resulted in the Mexican Revolution.
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Argentina
– Argentina also had a liberal government
– Popularity depended on maintaining the boom in the export economy
– Argentina's labor force expanded through immigration from Europe
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European-born workers brought with them socialism
Socialist Party emerged in Argentina in the 1890s
Series of strikes followed by government repression typified the first decades of the 20th century.
– The middle-class Radical Party
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Promised political reform and enlightened labor policies to gain power in 1916.
When faced with strikes, it, too, reacted repressively.
The models of Mexico and Argentina
– Oligarchies composed of the traditional aristocracy and the middle classes
– Uneasily presiding over disgruntled laborers and peasants
– Could be found in other Latin American states where liberal modernization met resistance
THE USA IN LATIN AMERICA
• After the Civil War
– American capitalists turned to Latin America for investment
– Invested heavily in Mexico, Central America, Caribbean
• Spanish-American War between 1895 and 1898
– First US war in Latin America since Mexican-American War
– Was intended to open door to valuable sugar plantations
– As a result of the war
• Former Spanish colony of Puerto Rico becomes US possession
• Cuba reduced to dependency of the United States
• Columbia and Panama
– Colombia proved reluctant to support US plans in Central America
– US backed Panama's independence movement
– In return, US got extensive rights to build a canal in the new nation
• Latin American nations
– Became increasingly critical of U.S. intervention in the region
– Critical of military, cultural, and economic penetration of the region
GLOBAL CONNECTIONS
• During the 19th century
– Former colonies of Latin America constructed new nations
– Latin America
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Was forced to forge economies
In a world trade network already dominated by European nations
Latin America cast off European imperialism in the 19th century
New nations carried with them colonial social systems
– Were strictly hierarchical
– Small Creole elite dominated the economy and politics
– Native Americans, former slaves, peasants
» Marginalized
» Shared little of economic expansion of the second half of the century
America was 1st region of world to undergo decolonization.
• Latin
– Latin America maintained ties to the West
– Imitated Western models
– Experienced growing influence of the United States
– Its dependent economy also kept it connected to the world.
WHO ARE THEY?
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CREOLES (CRIOLLOS)
• DOMINGO SARMIENTO
TOUSSAINT L’OVERTURE
FR. HIDALGO
ITURBIDE
SIMON BOLIVER
JOSE DE SAN MARTIN
JOAO IV
PEDRO I
JOSE LOPEZ DE SANTA ANNA
BENITO JUAREZ
MAXIMILIAN
WHAT ARE THEY?
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ST. DOMINIQUE
HAITI
GRAN COLOMBIA
CAUDILLOS
CENTRALISTS
FEDERALISTS
MONROE DOCTRINE
GUANO
POSITIVISM
MANIFEST DESTINY
TREATY OF GUADALUPE HIDALGO
1846 – 1848
LA REFORMA
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FAZENDAS
GREAT BOOM
CIENTIFICOS
1898
PANAMA CANAL