Download Britain in the Industrial Revolution

Chapter 20
The Beginnings of Modernization:
Industrialization and Nationalism, 1800-1870
Britain in the Industrial Revolution
1. The cotton industry began to surpass wool textile manufacturing in the eighteenth century due to numerous new inventions such as the flying
shuttle, the spinning jenny, the water frame, and the spinning mule. The first machines were cheap enough to permit the cotton spinners to continue
their work at home but as the size of the machines grew (and in conjunction, their output), the workers moved to workshops or mills located near
water sources that could power the machines. The advent of the steam engine permitted factories to be built around population centers such as
Manchester.
2. In addition to allowing flexibility as to the location of factories, the steam engine also provided a constant source of power that permitted factories to
run for longer periods of time. Furthermore, the engines stimulated the coal industry. Between 1815 and 1850 the output of coal increased fourfold
as it served to fuel both the textile and iron industries. By 1850 Britain was producing half the world's coal.
3. Like its coal reserves, Britain had extensive supplies of iron ore. The traditional fuel for smelting iron was charcoal from burning wood. In the early
eighteenth century more efficient coke derived from coal was being used in the smelting process. As the demand for iron increased, the more
proficient coke method was utilized. By 1852 the annual English production of iron was almost three million tons. This was more than the output of
the rest of the world combined.
4. A key to British industrial growth was a transportation network. New roads and canals were built between 1760 and 1830. Their importance,
however, paled beside the new railway system. The first public line, established in 1830, was between Liverpool and Manchester, a distance of
thirty-two miles that was covered in two hours. By 1850 locomotives were doing fifty miles per hour over the 6000 miles of track crisscrossing the
country. The British trackage amounted to slightly more than a quarter of all the mileage in the world. Since Britain was a small island, it was easy to
tie together the cities, factories, and ports by a transportation network. By 1851 half of all the manufactured goods in the world came from Britain.
5. Industrialization brought a change in the structure of the population with 48 percent of the workers involved in manufacturing by 1850. Much of the
manufacturing centered in cities that had grown tremendously. In 1800 Britain had one city of one million people, London, and six cities between
50,000 and 100,000 people. By 1850 London had more than 2.6 million inhabitants while there were nine cities of over 100,000 and eighteen cities
between 50,000 and 100,000. When the populations of cities under 50,000 are added to these totals it can be determined that 50 percent of Britain's
28 million people lived in urban areas.
Questions:
1. What advantages did Britain have to foster industrial development?
2. How important for British industrialism was the creation of a transportation network?
3. How did industrialization affect the population of Britain? What would be the consequences of large urban areas?
Britain in the Industrial Revolution
 The Industrial Revolution
 Great Britain
Agricultural growth
Population growth
Capital
Mineral resources
Markets
 Technological change
James Hargreaves, spinning jenny, 1768
Edmund Cartwright, power loom, 1787
James Watt, rotary steam engine, 1782
Cotton textile production
The Spread of Industry by 1850
1. Hindering industrial growth in Europe were the wars between 1790 and 1815 that played havoc with the economies. After the conflicts, Europeans
were unwilling to make the investments necessary for the newest machinery. Instead, businessmen opted to use older, less productive machines.
2. In France, as well as the rest of Europe, the wars had resulted in the interruption of the supply of cotton due to the British blockade. Thus, the wool
industry exploded. It was concentrated in France, Belgium, and northern Germany. Since manual labor was cheap, mechanization was slow.
Moreover, the consequence of the inundation of British cotton goods was production of specialty goods not made in England. As a result,
mechanization in France first occurred in the silk industry and then in cotton specialties.
3. The three centers of industrialization on the Continent were Belgium, France, and the German states. In Belgium, where there was an abundance
of cheap coal and scarce water power, the steam engine became a source of power to run the textile factories. France was a distant second to
Britain in cotton manufacturing and was dependent upon less efficient machines and labor. Moreover, manufacturing was dispersed throughout
France. Regardless, early industrialization in Belgium and France provided the conduit through which mechanics could spread their knowledge on
the Continent.
4. Unlike Britain which built its industrialization upon cotton manufacturing, the Continent witnessed heavy industry leading the way with its reliance
upon plentiful coal and iron reserves. Nevertheless, Germany, which failed to utilize the tremendous coal reserves it had in the Ruhr, built an iron
industry on the old method of burning wood for the charcoal.
5. In banking, the Belgian banks of Societe General and Banque de Belgique developed large capital resources by accepting deposits from many
depositors and then investing it in large scale projects such as railroads, mining, and heavy industry. This proved particularly important in developing
the Belgian coal industry that was to become the largest on the continent in the 1840s. The Credit Mobilier in France, the Darnstadt Bank in
Germany, and the Kreditanstalt in Austria served the same purposes.
6. Whereas Britain had large population concentrations in the cities (see Acetate 69), such migration and growth were not evident on the Continent.
In France, by 1851 Paris had a population of one million and only Lyons and Marseilles approached 200,000. In Germany and Austria only five
cities had more than 100,000 inhabitants. The most heavily industrialized country in Europe, Belgium, still had almost fifty percent of its male workers
involved in agriculture.
Questions:
1. What was the uniqueness of European industrialization?
2. In terms of urban growth, how was the industrialization of continental Europe different from that of Britain? What was the consequence of this?
Industrialization of Europe
Iron Industry
 Henry Cort, puddling
Railroad
 Richard Trevithick, steam-powered locomotive
 George Stephenson, Rocket, 1830
Factory system
 Spread of Industrialization
 Schools
 Government role
 Technical innovations
 United States
Interchangeable parts
Internal transportation
Labor
 Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution
 Population growth
Decline of death rate
Increased food supply
 Irish peasants
Potato
Great Famine, 1845-1851
 Emigration
 Urbanization
Factories and manufacturing
Miserable living conditions
Sanitary conditions
 Reaction of the middle class
Edwin Chadwick (1800-1890)
 New social classes
Bourgeoisie
Industrial working class
 Cotton mills
 Coal mines
Women and children
 Factory Acts
Centers of Revolt in 1848-49
1. The Revolutions of 1848 had their origin in France during the European industrial and agricultural depression of 1846. By the end of 1847 onethird of the workers in Paris were unemployed. When the government of King Louis-Philippe (1830-1848) failed to make timely changes, a rebellion
broke out which forced the king to abdicate in February 1848. After the provisional government closed some of the workshops another rebellion
forced the creation of a new constitution, thereby establishing the Second French Republic.
2. The news of the revolt in Paris and the activities of the proletariat gave strength in Germany to both the handicraft workers who wrecked machines
and factories and the peasants who burned and looted the homes of the nobility. Several German princes responded by offering liberal reforms
including constitutions. This was the case in Baden, Wurttemberg, and Saxony. In Prussia, King Frederick William IV (1840-1861) agreed in 1848
to establish a constitution and work for a united Germany after violence exploded in Berlin. A constituent assembly was formed but by early 1849 the
king disbanded it, granting a conservative constitution and reasserting rule by divine right. Meanwhile, more than 800 self-appointed German
delegates met in Frankfurt, the seat of the German Confederation, to write a federal constitution for a unified Germany. When the crown was offered
Frederick William, he turned it down.
3. In June 1848 Czech nationalism in Bohemia came into conflict with the nationalism of the dominant Germans. The differing aspirations played into
the hands of the Austrians who sought to reestablish their control. The Czech rebels in Prague were soon crushed.
4. The failures of 1830-1831 in Italy led to a new direction under the guidance of Guiseppi Mazzini who sought both unification and the expulsion of
the Austrians. In 1848 liberal rebellions spread north from Sicily. A republic was proclaimed in Venice and it attacked Austrian Lombardy but by
1849 both were back in Austrian hands. Generally, the Italian revolts had failed.
Questions:
1. What were the origins of the Revolutions of 1848?
2. Why did the Revolutions of 1848 generally fail?
Centers of Revolt in 1848-49
 Growth of Nationalism
 Conservative Order
Vienna peace settlement, 1815
Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859)
Concert of Europe
 Revolutionary outbursts
Economic and political liberalism
Nationalism
Revolts of 1830
 Revolutions of 1848
France
Prussia
Austria
Italy
Latin America in the Early Nineteenth Century
1. The first European to reach South America was Christopher Columbus on the Third Voyage (1498-1500), anchoring at Trinidad and sailing the
eastern Venezuelan coast. The Spanish conquest of South America began when Francisco Pizarro defeated the Incas in 1532-1533. In 1535 Lima,
the new capital, was founded. The southwestern coast (Chile) was occupied under Diego Almagro who established the cities of Santiago and
Valdivia. In 1533, Santiago del Estero was founded by conquistadors coming from Peru. On the eastern coast (Argentina), Santa Maria de
Buenos Aires was first established in 1535 and re-founded in 1580. Two years later, in 1537, Asuncíon was established a thousand miles up the
Paraguay River. In 1605 Spanish Jesuits settled around Asuncíon and from there created missions that prospered producing surpluses in cotton,
hides, and tobacco. In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled and the missions collapsed.
2. Although the Portuguese reached Brazil in 15001 it was generally ignored except for exploration expeditions and loggers seeking the red
brazilwood for dyes. The first permanent settlement was established in 1532 at São Vicente (near Santos). Inland, Piratininga was founded that
same year near the site of modern São Paulo. In 1549, Bahia was established, serving as the capital until 1763 when replaced by Rio de Janeiro.
By 1548 there were six sugar mills in São Vicente and in 1570 sixty mills throughout the northeast were producing about 2000 tons annually. Such
expansion led to the use of black slaves which was authorized by the king in 1552. By 1650 some 350 mills were in operation and their sugar
constituted more than ninety percent of the colony's export value.
3. In 1624-25, the Dutch seized Bahia but were expelled. In 1630 they returned to seize Olinda and then expanded their control over much of the
Brazilian northeast. Recife was also conquered that same year and became the Dutch capital. In 1641 Luanda in Africa was seized from the
Portuguese thereby providing a source of slaves for the Dutch sugar plantations. The Portuguese reasserted themselves forcing the Dutch to
withdraw from Brazil by 1661.
4. The French first established a colony in the bay of Rio de Janeiro in 1555 but were expelled in 1560. Shortly thereafter, in 1567, the Portuguese
founded Rio de Janeiro. Eventually, the French occupied the Amazon delta but were evicted in 1615.
5. Since the Spanish and Portuguese crowns were united between 1580 and 1640, the Brazilians used the opportunity to push beyond the Line of
Tordesillas which separated Spanish and Portuguese America. The push westward continued in the eighteenth century with the successful search
for gold and diamonds.
Question:
1. What was the role of economics in the establishment of cities?
Latin America in the Early Nineteenth Century
 Independence and the National State in Latin America
 Revolt in Latin America
Toussaint L’Ouverture (c. 1743-1803)
Mexico
Simón Bolívar (1783-1830)
José de San Martín
 Difficulties of nation building
 Nation building
Mexico
Argentina
Guatemala
Landed elites
The Unification of Italy
1. Although the revolts generally failed in 1848, Piedmont retained its liberal constitution achieved under duress in March. To many middle class
Italians, Piedmont appeared to be the liberal, progressive state to lead the way to national unification.
2. Prior to 1859, Count Camillo di Cavour, the prime minister of Victor Emmanuel II, sought only to unite the states of northern and central Italy with
Piedmont. He had no interest in either the Papal States or the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies since their cultures were different from that of
Piedmont. Nevertheless, to expand into Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena, and part of the northern Papal States would require a powerful ally
to counter Austria. To this end he sought a French alliance with a promise of Nice and Savoy in return for military support. When Piedmont
provoked Austria to war in April 1859, France dutifully joined its ally in invading Lombardy. In July, France suddenly made peace with Austria and
withdrew from the war. Apparently it feared the mobilization of Prussian forces in support of Austria. The peace between Austria and Piedmont that
followed left Lombardy with Piedmont. Because France had not fulfilled its obligations, Piedmont also kept Nice and Savoy.
3. During the war between Piedmont and Austria, nationalists seized power in Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and parts of the Papal States.
Plebiscites were held in 1860 and the states voted to join Piedmont. For permitting the annexations, France received Nice and Savoy.
4. In the south, Giuseppe Garibaldi lent his support to a revolt in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. He captured Palermo in Sicily and by
September 1860 the entire kingdom had fallen. He pushed on to Naples and prepared to attack Rome that would undoubtedly bring France into the
conflict as protector of the papacy. Cavour feared French intervention and thus struck first into the Papal States and moved into the Kingdom of
Naples. Rather than seek confrontation and civil war, Garibaldi yielded. A plebiscite was held and both the Papal States and the Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies agree to join Piedmont. The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in March 1861 with Victor Emmanuel II (1861-1878) as king.
5. The Austrian territory of Venetia became part of Italy as a result of the prudent association of Italy with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.
Although the Italians lost on the battlefield, the Prussian peace required Austria to hand over Venetia to Italy.
6. As war between France and Prussia seemed immanent in 1870, France withdrew its protective troops from Rome. Defenseless, the pope
permitted Rome to be annexed in September 1870 in return for making it the new capital of united Italy.
Questions:
1. Why would France be willing to help Piedmont against Austria?
2. For Europe, what was the consequence of the formation of Italy?
The Unification of Italy
 Ottoman Empire
 “Eastern Question”
 Greek revolt, 1821
Britain and France
Russo-Turkish War
 Treaty of Adrianople, 1829
 Crimean War, 1853-1855
Treaty of Paris, 1855
 Unification of Italy
 Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861)
 Guiseppe Garibarldi (1807-1882)
 King Victor Emmanuel II (1861-1878)
 Austro-Prussian War, 1866
 Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871
 Unification of Germany
 King William I (1861-1888)
 Count Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
 Schleswig and Holstein
 Austro-Prussian War , 1866
 North German Confederation
 Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871
 Nationalism and Reform
 Britain
Reform Act of 1832
 France
Louis Napoleon, Napoleon III (1852-1870)
Economic growth and development
 Austria
Ausgleich, Compromise, of 1867
 Russia
Tsar Alexander II (1855-1881)
 Reforms
 Growth of the United States
 Federalists and Republicans
 Supreme Court
 Andrew Jackson (1767-1845)
 Economy
 Slavery
 Civil War (1861-1865)
The United States and Canada in the Nineteenth Century
1. The 1783 victory of the Americans in the War for Independence brought them by way of treaty the lands east of the Mississippi River to the
Appalachian Mountains; The American claim to the territory was enhanced by Revolutionary victories in the Ohio River valley. In a separate 1783
treaty, Florida was returned to Spain by the British.
2. Under pressure from Napoleon, Spain ceded back to France in l8OO the vast Louisiana territory. Three years later, with Napoleon needing cash to
resume his war in Europe, France sold Louisiana for $15 million to the U.S. Explorations by Meriweather Lewis and William Clark in 1804-1805
established the American claim to the northwestern territory. Acting as if the Louisiana Purchase included Florida, the United States added a slice
of West Florida to the state of Louisiana upon its admission in 1812 and another slice to the Mississippi territory. In the Adams-Onis Treaty of
1819, Spain ceded East Florida to the United States and renounced its claim to West Florida.
3. In 1836 rebellious Texans defeated President/General Santa Anna of Mexico at San Jacinto in southeast Texas and gained their independence.
Texas remained an independent nation until 1845 when it was admitted as a state to the United States. In part, the admission of Texas was a cause
of the Mexican-American War (1846-48). The conclusion of the war with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought to the United States California,
Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. In addition, the U.S. acquisition of Texas was recognized.
4. Oregon territory was claimed by Russia, Spain, Britain, and the new United States. Spain and Russia dropped their claim while the United States
and Britain sparred over the jointly occupied area. In the 1830s and 1840 Americans increasingly moved into the territory and it became an issue in
the 1844 election. In 1849 the United States and Britain agreed to demarcation at the forty-ninth parallel.
5. In 1837 and 1838 two separate rebellions broke out in Canada as colonists sought self-rule. As a result of a report to Queen Victoria in 1840,
Parliament in the Act of Union combined Lower and Upper Canada into the new United Province of Canada. Self-government, however, was not
granted. Due to sectional differences, the union was not a happy one. In 1867 Parliament passed the British North American Act in which Upper
Canada became the province of Ontario and Lower Canada became Quebec. These provinces were united with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
In the Pacific west, the colonies of Vancouver Island (1849) and British Columbia (1858) were created. In 1870 the province of Manitoba was added
to Canada and the following year British Columbia was included when the government agree to build the Canadian Pacific Railroad to the link the
new province with the east. Prince Edward Island joined Canada in 1873. The Hudson's Bay Company lands became the provinces of Alberta and
Saskatchewan in 1905. In 1912 other parts of the Company's lands were added to Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba. Newfoundland finally became a
province in 1948.
Questions:
1. What claims allowed the United States to expand?
2. How was Canada created?
The United States and Canada in the Nineteenth Century
 Canada
 John Macdonald
 British North American Act, 1867
 Cultural Life
 Romanticism
Literature and poetry
Art
Music
 Science
Technological advances
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
 Realism
Literature
Art