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Western Civilization II HIS-102 Unit 10 – World War I Causes of World War I Since the unification of Germany in 1871, the major European powers began to race for supremacy Balance of power This included not only having a power base in Europe but extensive colonies throughout the world At the same time, the powers worked to maintain a balance of power to prevent one country or alliance from becoming too dominant This led to the development of an intricate system of national treaties and alliances Causes of World War I In 1879, Germany allied with Austria-Hungary Arranged by Bismarck, this was to be a defensive alliance in case of an attack by Russia Designed after the Russians defeated the Ottomans in the Russo-Turkish War and gained considerable control over the Balkans In 1882, this alliance was expanded to include Italy Italy was in strong competition with France over colonies in Africa Specifically were upset that they lost Tunisia This created the Triple Alliance Causes of World War I After the signing of the Triple Alliance, the other major powers of Europe were nervous Franco-Russian Alliance (1892) Would remain in place as long as the Triple Alliance remained intact Entente Cordiale (1904) Between France and Britain Recognized certain spheres of influence in Africa and Asia Recognized French and British colonies in Africa and Asia French gained free passage through the Suez Canal Causes of World War I Anglo-Russian Entente (1907) Finally brought peace between Britain and Russia over territories in Persia and Afghanistan Also played a role in balancing out the growing power of Germany Triple Entente (1907) Ended the “Great Game” Designed to balance out the Triple Alliance Signed by Britain, France, and Russia Later signed by Portugal, Japan, and Spain These alliances would leave Europe open to war at even the slightest of incidents European Alliances in 1914 Causes of World War I The spark that started World War I would come out of the Balkans Great powers tried to avoid direct intervention European powers had been long interested in this region Lay between two unsteady empires: the Austro-Hungarians and the Ottoman Region had sweeping nationalist movements and pan-Slavism Instead wanted to work their way through a series of alliances The First Balkan War (1912) Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Montenegro against the Ottomans Causes of World War I The Second Balkan War (1913) The Austro-Hungarian Empire Fought over the spoils of the 1912 war Suffered from constant ethnic conflict after the reforms of 1867 Many were upset at being excluded from the new government Austrians occupied and then annexed Bosnia in 1878 Bosnian Serbs hoped to secede and join the independent kingdom of Serbia The Bosnian Serb underground war to achieve this goal Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1889-1914) The July Crisis Sarajevo was a hotbed of Serbian resistance On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, traveled through the city for a parade Along the route, he was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand This was a Serbian secret society promoting Pan-Slavism This led to a chain reaction of events that led to the start of World War I On July 5, 1914, Kaiser Wilhelm II promised German support for the Austrians if they went to war against Serbia The July Crisis On July 23, 1914, Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to Serbia They wanted to end all opposition to Austria-Hungary in Serbia One of the clauses included an official investigation into the assassination that would be led by Austria-Hungary The Serbians refused agree to this clause and begin mobilizing their army On July 28, Austria declares war against Serbia As Russia signed an alliance with Serbia, it mobilized its forces to aid Serbia on July 30 The July Crisis Germany issued an ultimatum to Russia It requested that Russia stop its mobilization under threat of war with Germany Russia refused Germany declared war on Russian on August 1 Germany also issued an ultimatum to France France responded by saying that it would consult its "own interests“ and began mobilizing its forces Germany saw this as a negative reply to its ultimatum and began initializing the Schlieffen Plan on August 1 The July Crisis While Germany did have a superior army, it knew it could not fight a two front war The Schlieffen Plan was created in 1904 to deal with this situation Germany believed that it would take Russia six weeks to mass its forces for mobilization This would give the Germans enough time to attack and conquer France The path the army would have to travel through would take them through Belgium Britain had a mutual assistance treaty with Belgium from 1839 The July Crisis Timeline of the crisis August 3 - Germany invaded Belgium and declared war on France August 4 - Germany declared war on Belgium and in response Britain declares war on Germany August 5 - Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia in response to their mobilization August 6 - Serbia declared war on Austria-Hungary August 10 – France declares war on Austria-Hungary August 12 – Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary August 23 – Japan declares war on Germany August 25 – Austria-Hungary declares war on Japan August 28 – Austria-Hungary declares war on Belgium The July Crisis “Tragedy of Miscalculations” The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Triple Alliance While Italy was part of the Triple Alliance, it joined the Allies after being secretly promised additional territory after the war Japan also got involved in the war against Germany Little diplomatic communication It wanted Shantung province and a number of German controlled islands in the Pacific Spain, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and, initially, the U.S. remained neutral World War I in Europe The Early Years of the War General observations War as national glory and spiritual renewal War put centuries of progress at risk Bankers and financiers were most opposed to war—financial chaos would result For the young there was the excitement of enlistment “Over by Christmas” A short, limited, and decisive war Size and bigger armies Speed and quick offensives The Early Years of the War After invading Belgium and Luxembourg, the Germans invaded northern France They succeeded in taking key industrial areas Problems with the Schlieffen Plan The plan overestimated physical and logistical capabilities The speed of movement was too much for the troops Supply lines could not keep up The resistance of the Belgian army slowed down the troops as well Expected an attack from Alsace-Lorraine which never occurred Also, fears that the Russians would mobilize quickly forced the German commanders to send troops east and modify the Plan The Early Years of the War Battle of the Marne (September 5-12,1914) Also known as the Miracle of Marne The French stopped the German advance outside of Paris Troops were sent to the battle line from Paris in taxicabs After this loss, the Germans abandoned the Schlieffen Plan Supposedly the German commander, Helmuth von Moltke told the Wilhelm II “Your Majesty, we have lost the war!” From that point on, the fighting on the western front was bogged down into trench warfare The Early Years of the War New weapons Artillery, machine guns, and barbed wire Exploding bullets and liquid fire Both sides participated in chemical warfare On April 22, 1915 at the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans released 168 tons chlorine gas on British and French troops, killing over 5,000 On December 19, 1916, the Germans used a combination of chlorine/phosgene gas on troops in Nieltje, Belgium, causing over 1,000 casualties (69 deaths) While the British and French did use chemical weapons, they were not nearly as effective as the Germans during the first two years of the war French troops near Verdun (c. 1916) Stalemate 1915 The search for new partners In October 1914, the Ottomans closed the Dardanelles to Allied shipping Ottomans joined Germany and Austria in 1914 Italy joined the Allies in May 1915 Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in 1915 Major effect was to expand the war geographically Entrance to the Black Sea Threatened Russia’s supply lines Endangered British control of the Suez Canal Churchill argued for a naval offensive in the Dardanelles Stalemate 1915 Battle of the Dardanelles (February 19, 1915-January 9, 1916) Landed at Gallopoli on April 25, 1915 Incompetent naval leadership Lacked adequate planning, supply lines, and maps At the battle of March 8, British had three ships sunk and three more severely damaged Fought for seven months and then the British withdrew Major Allied defeat 200,000 casualties Gallipoli did not shift the focus away from the Western Front HMS Irresistible (March 18, 1915) Stalemate 1915 A war of attrition The nature of modern war The total mobilization of resources The Allies imposed a naval blockade on Germany Germany responded with submarine warfare Germans sank the Lusitania on May 7, 1915 Almost 1200 killed Provoked the animosity of the United States The blockade stained Germany’s national economy Stalemate 1915 Trench warfare War as a “matter of holes and ditches” 25,000 miles of trenches from Switzerland to the North Sea Attack, support, and reserve trenches German trenches as permanent defensive positions, comfortable amenities British and French trenches designed as offensive positions Poorly constructed Cold, wet, dirt, lice, and rats “Wastage” Seven thousand British soldiers killed daily Trench Warfare The Great Battles (1916-1917) General observations Bloodiest battles occurred during 1916–1917 Hundreds of thousands of casualties with little territorial gain War as carnage Military planners refused to alter traditional offensive strategies The “cult of the offensive” Little protection against new weapons Believed that the troops could break through the lines if there were enough of them with enough weapons Men were armed with rifles and bayonets going up against machine guns Poor communication between command and the front line Firepower outpaced mobility The Great Battles (1916-1917) Battle of Verdun (February 21-December 18, 1916) This was the longest and one of the deadliest battles of the war Germans fired one million shells on the first day alone There were 976,000 casualties and over 300,000 deaths The battle represented French determination not only to hold off the Germans from taking the city but to push them back as well On June 23, 1916, General Robert Nivelle issued the famous order of “"Ils ne passeront pas!” (“They shall not pass!”) which became a battle cry for the French The Great Battles (1916-1917) Battle of the Somme (July 1–November 18, 1916) It was originally planned as an offensive attack against the Germans By the time the battle started it had become a way to pull German troops away from Verdun On the first day of battle, the British alone suffered from over 57,000 casualties (over 19,000 dead) due to poor planning and communication The Allies recovered using a combination of air superiority and the introduction of the tank but still were not able to make any significant headway In the end, the Germans had 600,000 casualties, British 419,000, and the French 194,000 Neither side won—“The War had won” The Great Battles (1916-1917) After the defeats of the Germans at Verdun and the Somme, the western front was put under the command of two new generals: Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff Hindenburg switched the German army‘s game plan from offense to defense He created what came to be known as the Hindenburg Line, a defensive line of bunkers, barbed wire, machine guns, and trenches Hindenburg Line near Bullecourt The Great Battles (1916-1917) Nivelle Offensive (April 16–May 9, 1917) Named after the French commander-in-chief, Robert Nivelle Allied offensive designed to break through German lines Failed attempt 120,000 casualties in the first five days Nivelle was fired after this Third Battle of Ypres (July 31–November 6 1917) Fought for control of the town of Passchendaele near Ypres in Belgium Once again, the goal was to break through German lines British had 300,000 casualties and the Germans as high as 400,000 Before and after shot of Passchendaele The Eastern Front The eastern front was much wider and longer than the western front It went from St. Petersburg to the north down to the Black Sea in the south Because of the span of the front, trench warfare was not implemented The eastern war began with Russia invading East Prussia in August 1914 With the Battle of Tannenburg (August 23-September 2, 1914), the Russian Second Army was destroyed In a series of follow-up battles, the First Army was significantly weakened The Eastern Front By 1915, the Germans decided that their focus should be on the eastern front At the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes, the Central Powers under Hindenburg were able to push the Russians back behind the Vistula River By that summer, the Russians were pushed out of Poland Brusilov Offensive (June 4 – August 10, 1916) Russian surprise attack against the Austro-Hungarian lines While it was at first successful, the Russians did not immediately follow with more troops It did weaken Austria-Hungary enough to lead to its collapse The Eastern Front A third front opened up in 1915 between Italy and Austria-Hungary after Italy joined the Allies The war was not limited to Europe Submarines and battleships carried war around the world Soldiers from the British Empire, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, India, and French-speaking black Africans all fought on the western front British and French battled the Germans in Africa over their colonies After the Turks entered the war, they systematically massacred 800,000 Armenians European Empires c. 1914 War of Empires Europe’s colonies provided soldiers and material support Britain Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and South Africa Fought on the Western Front, Mesopotamia, and Egypt 800,000 causalities France 1.5 million troops from India alone Used over 600,000 fighters from north and west Africa Also conscripted 250,000 colonists to work in factories during the war Colonies as theaters for armed engagement War drew Europe into the Middle East War of Empires Allies pushed the Turks out of Egypt in 1916 British encourage Arab nationalism British were led by Edmund Allenby who pitted various Arab peoples against the Ottomans Lawrence of Arabia popularized the Arab style of guerilla warfare to gain significant territory Those who allied with the Allies were promised key political positions Balfour Declaration Arthur Balfour, Britain’s foreign secretary, promoted the creation of a home for European Jews in Palestine Irish Revolt The British Empire was also vulnerable Sinn Féin (“Ourselves Alone”) Formed in 1900 for Irish independence Home Rule Bill passed Parliament (1912) Long standing tensions between Irish Catholics and Protestants “Irish question” tabled with outbreak of war The Easter Revolt (1916) Nationalist revolt on Easter Sunday in Dublin Plan to smuggle German arms failed Revolt as military disaster but was a political success Irish Revolt The British military executed the rebels in public New Home Rule Bill (1920) Created separate parliaments for north and south Ireland Dominion status granted to Catholic Ireland in 1921 This drew sympathy from even high British officials Led to a rise of new nationalism Guerilla warfare continued on Civil war erupted over the absorption of Ulster in northern Ireland Irish Free State established (1937) Irish Republic (1945) British ammunition factory The Home Front The costs of war: money and manpower Mobilizing the home front Single goal of military victory “Total war” Civilians were essential to the war economy Produced munitions Purchased war bonds Tax hikes, inflation, and material privation (rationing) Shift from industrial to munitions production Increased state control of production and distribution Germany and the Hindenburg Plan Pricing and profit margins were set by individual industrialists The Home Front Women in the war Women as symbols of change Massive numbers entered the munitions industry Women entered clerical and service sectors New opportunities for women Breaking down restrictions A new freedom Vera Brittain, in Testament of Youth, recorded down the new social norms The “new woman” was a symbol of freedom and a disconcerting cultural transformation The Home Front Long-term changes Women sent home after the war Governments pass “natalist” policies Encouraging women to marry and raise children Birth control Giving jobs to veterans But what of the widows who needed the work? Difficult to switch back to low-paying traditional employment for women First birth control clinic opened up in London in 1921 Universal suffrage: Britain (1918), United States (1919), France (1945) U.S. World War I era propaganda poster The Home Front Mobilizing men and money Conscription Before 1914, military service seen as a duty, not an option France called up 8 million men 2/3s of the population of men age eighteen to forty British introduced conscription in 1916 Propaganda Important in recruitment Germans defended their Kultur from the “evil” allies “May God punish England” was a common phrase Films, posters, postcards, newspapers The absolute necessity of total victory The Home Front Financing the war Military spending rose to half a nation’s budget Allies borrowed from Britain, who borrowed from the United States Britain owed $4.2 billion after the war was over Germany printed its own money Prior to the war it had only been less than 5% Increase of 1,000% in the amount of money circulating Dramatic rise in inflation Prices rose 400% People began to starve in both Germany and Austria-Hungary The Home Front By 1917, the strains of war were showing Declining morale of the troops Troops saw their commanders’ strategies as futile Rise in number of mutinies Self-mutilation War neuroses On the home front Shortages of basic supplies (clothing, food, and fuel) Price of bread and potatoes soared The Home Front Governments moved from restraint to direct control Issued ration cards Difference between what was allowed and what was available People continued to starve Regulation of working hours and wages Political dissent, violence, and large-scale riots took place Industrial strikes hit every type of industry Governments pushed to their limits U.S. World War I era propaganda poster The Russian Revolution Disillusionment with Nicholas II as general World War I and the February Revolution Russia was unable to sustain the political strains of extended warfare After 1905, Nicholas was severely unpopular Corruption in the royal court Nicholas insisted on personally commanding his army Alexandra and Rasputin Poland and most of the Baltics fell to the Germans One million Russian casualties The Russian Revolution Russian army was poorly trained and undersupplied Domestic discontent February 23, 1917: International Women’s Day Nicholas faced liberal opposition from the Duma Soldiers were unwilling to fight Militant labor movement and a rebellious urban population In St. Petersburg, women marched demanding food, fuel, and political reform Within a few days, a mass strike of 300,000 people Nicholas sent in the police and military 60,000 troops stationed in Petrograd sided with the revolt Nicholas abdicated on March 2, 1917 The Russian Revolution New centers of power Provisional government Made up of mostly middle-class leaders in the Duma Wanted to establish a democratic system under constitutional rule Set up an election for a constituent assembly Granted some civil liberties The Petrograd Soviet Organized by Leon Trotsky after the 1905 Revolution Claimed to be the legitimate power Pressed for social reform and the redistribution of land Desired a negotiated settlement with Germany and Austria Leon Trotsky (1879-1940) The October Revolution Leadership of the Russian Social Democrats split over revolutionary strategy (1903) Bolsheviks (“majority”) Mensheviks (“minority”) Favored a centralized party of active revolutionaries Revolution would lead to a socialist regime Move toward socialism gradually Supported “bourgeois” or liberal reform Mensheviks gained control of the party Lenin Russian capitalism made socialism possible Organizing the new class of industrial workers Revolutionary zeal and Western Marxism The October Revolution February–October 1917 Bolshevik demands An immediate end to the war Improvement in working conditions Redistribution of aristocratic lands to the peasantry General Kornilov tried to restore order to Petrograd Lenin called for “Peace, Land, and Bread, Now” and “All Power to the Soviets” Bolsheviks won support from workers, soldiers, and peasants The October Revolution October 1917 Trotsky attacked the Provisional Government on October 24–25 Lenin announced that “all power has passed to the Soviets” Provisional government flees the Winter Palace A quick and bloodless revolution The Bolsheviks in power Moved against all political opposition Expelled parties who disagreed with the Bolsheviks Dispersed the Constituent Assembly The one-party dictatorship Peasant soldiers returned home The redistribution of land, the nationalization of banks, and workers’ control of factories The October Revolution The Bolsheviks and the war Negotiated the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany (March 1918) Russia surrendered the Ukraine, Georgia, Finland, Polish territories, and the Baltic states Led to civil war Not so much a crisis of government, but an absence of government John Reed and “the ten days that shook he world” The Allies: the revolution allowed Germany to win the war on the Eastern Front Conservatives: feared a wave of revolution sweeping away other regimes Socialists: startled to see a regime gain control so quickly in such a backward country Lenin speaking in Red Square (c. 1918) Road to German Defeat With Russia out of the war, Germany concentrated its efforts on the Western Front They knew that they needed to strike before the U.S. military was ready The Allies feared Germany would win the war before the United States entered the war (April 1917) On March 21, 1918, Germany launched an all out offensive that became known as the Spring Offensive or Ludendorff Offensive The Germans got within 50 miles of Paris By the time the offensive ended in July, German troops had been reduced, they were exhausted, and the front line was made even longer Road to German Defeat Battle of Belleau Wood (June 1-16, 1918) This was part of the German Spring Offensive Only a few American Marine troops participated in the battle but their contributions were significant The Allies won the battle and the Marines were called the Teufel Hunden (“Devil Dogs”) by the Germans afterwards for their fierce fighting Battle of Chateau-Thierry (July 18, 1918) This was part of the Second Battle for the Marne It was the first time U.S. troops fully participated in a battle It too was an Allied victory Road to German Defeat Battle of Saint-Mihiel (September 12-19, 1918) Over 500,000 American troops fought in this battle and they outnumbered the Germans 9-1 It was the first solo battle by U.S. forces with the goal of capturing the city of Metz The troops were able to easily defeat the retreating Germans Battle for Argonne Forest (September 26 – November 11, 1918) This was the final push against the Germans with over 1,200,000 U.S. troops participating The front was over 200 miles long The Germans were forced to seek a cease-fire after this Road to German Defeat Countries started signing separate peace agreements to bring an end to the war September 29, 1918 – Bulgaria first sued for peace September 30 – Ottoman empire surrendered November 3 – Austria-Hungary sued for peace after the overthrow of the Habsburg monarchy November 9 – Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated the throne and fled to the Netherlands; a republic was created in Germany On November 11, 1918 an armistice was signed between the Allies and the new German republic A cease-fire began at 11am that day Wounded British soldiers near Bernafay Wood following fighting on Bazentin Ridge (July 19, 1916) The Numbers By the time the war ended on November 11, 1918, there was a total of over 40 million casualties from the war, both military and civilian This breaks down to approximately 20 million deaths and 21 million wounded There were 9.7 million military deaths and about 10 million civilian deaths The Central Powers had over 9.2 million military and civilian deaths and over 8.4 million wounded Germany had over 2.4 million deaths with over 4.3 million wounded The Ottoman Empire had over 5 million deaths and 400,000 wounded The Numbers The Allies in total had over 9.3 million military and civilian deaths with 12.8 million wounded Great Britain had just under one million deaths and over 1.6 million wounded France had just under 1.7 million deaths and over 4.2 million wounded Russia had over 3.3 million deaths and just under 5 million wounded The U.S. had just over 116,000 deaths and just over 200,000 wounded Half of the U.S. deaths came from disease rather than battle, especially the flu epidemic Prime Minister Lloyd George (Britain), President Vittorio Orlando (Italy), President Georges Clemenceau (France), and Woodrow Wilson Versailles Peace Conference President Woodrow Wilson headed the U.S. delegation to the peace conference at Versailles David Lloyd George of England, Georges Clemenceau of France and Vittorio Orlando of Italy were less impressed with the president and his plans Even though Wilson was considered naïve, he was a good negotiator and was able to get some concessions through Europe carved up without regard to language or ethnic divisions Led to challenges to stability in the 1930s Versailles Peace Conference The Austro-Hungarian empire was dissolved The new countries of Austria, Hungary and Yugoslavia were created out of it The conference also created Poland, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania This was mostly done to curb the growing threat of the Bolsheviks in eastern Europe There was also the creation of the Polish Corridor to give the country the warm water port of Danzig, but this divided up Germany into two separate parts Germany after 1918 Versailles Peace Conference France was to occupy the industrial Saar region of Germany for 15 years After that, a plebiscite would be held to see if the region would become part of France or Germany Italy gained the port of Triest but not the neighboring and Italian speaking city of Fiume Germany’s colonies were to be divided up between Britain, France, and Japan Wilson was forced to accept a mandate system where Britain would get control of the Middle East while Japan got Germany’s colonies in the Pacific and China Versailles Peace Conference The end of the Ottoman empire Little was done about reforming colonial rule The biggest concern was that all these decisions made without the input of small European nations or any input from Soviet Russia Even more severe penalties were placed on the Germans Germany was forced to pay reparations of $35 billion It lost much of its oil and coal territory Its army was to be reduced in size It had to admit war guilt (Article 231) Versailles Peace Conference A lot of sides were unhappy with the terms of the treaty and did not represent the “peace without victory” Wilson had hoped for German people felt betrayed Japan felt slighted as they did not play a major role in negotiations Italians were angry because received less territory than expected Wilson also did not win approval for freedom of the seas or the abolition of trade barriers Versailles Peace Conference The only good thing for Wilson was the approval of the League of Nations It had a council of the five great powers, with elected delegates from smaller countries A World Court was to be set up to settle disputes Article X was key to international peace as it pledged all members “to respect and preserve against external aggression the territorial integrity” of all other members The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919 This ended six long months of negotiations Many aspects of this treaty would lead up to the Great Depression and World War II The Signing of the Peace in the Hall of Mirrors By William Orpen