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LONG TERM NATIONALISM Rivalry between Great Powers for Status, Influence Germany, Austria France, Great Britain, Russia Competition between national economies for profit IMPERIALISM The competition for foreign empires in Africa, Asia Rivalry for influence in independent nations MILITARISM, NAVALISM Nationalism demanded modern armies and navies Arms race ensued Nations could not permit rival to have better military ALLIANCES Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria, Italy – Rumania, Bulgaria, Turkey Triple Entente: France, Russia, Great Britain – Serbia, Belgium Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 SHORT TERM July 24, 1914: Serb Black Hand member assassinates, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian Throne Austria picks a fight with Serbia, who calls on Russia for assistance Austria asks Germany for help; Russia asks France for help Germany attacks France through Belgium without declaration of war European leaders allowed war to begin because they believed it would be quick, decisive H.M.S DREADNOUGHT Dreadnought served with the 4th Battle Squadron in the North Sea during the first two years of World War I. On 18 March 1915, while so employed, she rammed and sank the German Submarine U-29. Germany's War Plan Germany called for a swift defeat of France, longer war with Russia Invaded neutral Belgium, Luxembourg without declaration of war Failure to defeat France set stage for 3 years of stalemate Military dictatorship gradually replaced Kaiser, German Reichstag on running war Allied War Plans French planned to attack into Alsace-Lorraine to recover lost land French military planners spoke of elan and e’spririt de corps to overcome technology, German Russia was to swiftly mobilize and attack Germany, Austria in the east Western Front Soldiers dug trenches length of the front; machine guns and artillery dominate battlefield Neither side could advance against the other's defenses. Allies and Germans both began to use technology to break deadlock Both sides imposed blockades on the other using navies, submarines Eastern Front Aristocratic officers, peasant soldiers of Russia unprepared; Germany had world’s most modern army Virtual destruction of the tsarist armies and steady loss of territory to Germany Nicholas II, who had taken direct control of the front, incompetent Germany quickly developed a war of maneuver: no static front Italian and Balkan Fronts Russia did well against the Austro-Hungarians Bulgaria joins Central Powers in 1915 Serbia, Montenegro overrun by Central Powers in 1915 Italy joined allies to gain territory but did very poorly. Rumania joined allies to regain Transylvania and quickly overrun Role of Technology Allies, Central Powers tried to break stalemate using new weapons New weapons include: Germans: Submarines, poisonous gas, bombers, fighters Allies: Tanks, destroyers, mass produced freighters Both sides had to develop new foods, techniques to replace what was lost due to failed trade German unrestricted submarine warfare led to American entry to the war in 1917 Technology was one way conflict became a total war The Fighter The Tank The Machine Gun The Bomber The Zeppelin The Submarine or U-Boat The Ottoman Empire Sided with Germany as UK, Russia had proven enemies Allies try to force way through Dardanelles Needed to open supply route to Russia Gallipoli was a disaster for ANZAC troops used Cost UK support amongst Australia, New Zealand British invade Middle East Used Indian, colonial troops Twin pushes - through Palestine, Iraq Capture Jerssalem, Baghdad before 1918 Russia and the Turks Russian armies drove Turks back into Anatolia Christians welcomed Russians Germans rushed to aid Turks, stop Russian advances Military failures led to a genocidal assault on Armenian Christians, Allied Promises French, British promise Arabs independence after war Secretly made plans to partition area amongst Allies (Sykes-Pikot Treaty) Promised Jews a homeland too (Balfour Declaration) The War Outside Europe Fighting spread to the colonies Troops from the colonies were recruited for war in Europe British naval power contributed greatly to the globalization of the war The Indian Army provided much of Britain’s overseas armies for all fronts Indian Army instrumental in Mesopotamia, Africa Asia-Pacific Japan seized German possessions in Asia , Pacific China joined war to get voice at peace conference China sent 100,000 porters to Europe to free up troops Germans sent their East Asian fleet on cruise to raid commerce in Pacific, Indian Ocean Africa Allies quickly overran all German colonies except East Africa Germans in East Africa led by a military genius who was never defeated Germans invaded Belgian Congo, British East Africa, and Mozamibique The Dominions contributed supplies and troops to the British effort Many African divisions served in Europe, Middle East Germany made a major mistake with unrestricted submarine warfare – US hated it Germany made a major mistake with Zimmerman Telegraph to Mexico The U.S. entry into the war made it a major global power U.S. supplies and troops led Germany to believe it needed to launch a major offensive. The Eastern Front Germany completely outclassed Russia; Russia only able to make headway against Austria Germany simply was overstrained by two fronts and could not devote troops for a quick victory 1916 Russia is in trouble militarily and collapse near at any time Germans have cut two of three supply routes from West to Russia (Baltic, Black Seas) Allies forced to resupply Russia either through Murmansk in north or Siberia, both of which froze Troops are ready to mutiny as underfed, peasants are starving and workers are upset 1st Russian Revolution or Democratic Revolution February 1917 Troops mutiny and refuse imperial orders Workers, soldiers, and sailors join revolt; form soviets or councils New government formed: forces tsar to abdicate and declares Russia a republic The Kerensky Government A socialist government without much power – too many competing interests Under pressure from Allies continues war, delays reforms Soviets infuriated, infiltrated by the Bolsheviks (Communists) Communists organize private army – Red Guard Conservatives attempt to halt spread of socialism with military takeover – Red Guard defeats it 2nd Russian Revolution or Communist Revolution October 1917 Red Guard and supporters seize control of state from Socialists Create a communist government Russia signed peace treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany Left war freeing German army in East for western front The Home Fronts in Europe Soldiers at front became angry with political leaders Disturbed by civilians who continued to support the war Governments Took direct control of many industries Rise of strong centralized state bureaucracies Made use of sophisticated propaganda Workers and Women Unions, socialist leaders increasingly tied to government; workers rejected support of war Labor protests in Russia helped spark the fall of the Tsar Women's participation in labor force increased Many pushed out of work after war ended Participation in the war effort helped them gain vote in Britain, Germany, and USA The Return to Offensive Warfare Failure of April 1918 offensive by the Germans US troops arrived quicker than expected and halted German advance Collapse of Austrians, Bulgars, Turks led Germany to agree to armistice in November 1918 Revolution in Germany 1918 – 1919 Soviet, Socialist revolutions lead to collapse of German empire, creation of a Republic Many Germans came to blame the civilian government that replaced the Kaiser. Immense destruction in Europe and very high death tolls (10 million) Allies owed billions to the US: had to collect billions in reparations from Germany Compounded by worldwide influenza epidemic that killed 50 million more. 14 Points Woodrow Wilson's plan for a non-punitive peace Germany agreed to an armistice based on 14 Points Thwarted by the Entente allies Britain and France demanded reparations Demanded a treaty that blamed Germany for the war Paris Peace Conference, 1919 Allied leaders assembled in Paris Germany was deliberately humiliated Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empires were dismembered Russia not invited as Allies were at war with Bolshevism Colonies of European Nations, China Largely ignored Envoys were often not even consulted Wilson’s 14th Point Only part of the 14th Points enacted US Senate did not ratify the treaty USSR, former Central Power nations were not admitted The League of Nations Goal: International organization for nations to consult, avoid war Reality: had no real power to enforce peace, punish aggressors Reality: France, UK dominate Colonies not represented World War I impacted colonies Colonial Contribution African, Asian troops conscripted for European armies Battles of Marne (1914) won with assistance of Senegalese troops British conquer Middle East largely using Indian Army Colonies served as important sources of food, raw materials During the course of the war European vulnerability became evident European troops withdrawn from colonies for European fronts Administrative personnel were recalled Africans, Asians filled posts previously reserved for Europeans To maintain support Europeans made many promises Promised independence But they often failed to fulfill them after the war War cast doubts on claims of European superiority Its disruptions bolstered nationalist movements. Africa, Southwest Asia, Asia ignored at Paris Peace German colonies divided amongst victors as mandates Arabs in Turkish Empire become mandates of UK, France Garveyism intended persons of African ancestry in the diaspora to "redeem" the nations of Africa and for the European colonial powers to leave the continent. Nationalist Challenge to the British Raj India colonized long before Africa, Asia Was first to establish independence movements Western-educated minorities organized politically Sought to bring about the end or modification of colonial regimes Indian National Congress Regional associations of Western-educated Indians Most often urbanized elite Formed Indian National Congress party in 1885 Primary function of early party was to present grievances to British Most of the issues concerned the Indian elite, not the poor Despite limited aims, Congress party allowed the formation of Indian identity Social Foundations of a Mass Movement British economic and social policies Helped the Congress party attract a mass following Marginalized all Indians including elite Indians Supported the massive costs for the colonial army, high-salaried bureaucrats Tolerated the importation of British-manufactured goods. Problems among the peasantry including shortfalls of food supplies Induced nationalists to blame the British policies Encouraged peasants to shift from the production of food to commercial crops. In the years after World War I Ottoman rule collapsed Old Ottoman state to be partitions between Allies, Greeks, Armenians Only a small Turkish state built around Ankara remained Constantinople placed under international control Greeks seek more lands in Asia Minor, invade rump Turkish state Rise of Turkish Nationalism Turks rally to Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal): organizes, arms Turkish armies Drive Greek armies out of Asia Minor Negotiates with Allies for return of Turkish lands Abolishes Caliphate, Sultanate in 1922 and creates a republic Begins process of westernization, modernization of Turkish state, culture Massive liberties granted to women – first such move in Middle East Arabia Wahhabist State in Central Arabia Prior to World War I Wahhabis were puritanical religious fanatics Sought to cleanse Islam of all foreign influences Religious sect allied to Saud family ruling central Arabia Arab Uprising against Turks Began in Hejaz (region containing Mecca and Medina) under Hashemite Emirs After World War I Wahhabists conquer Hejaz and expel pro-British Hashemite emirs Create unified Arabian state called Saudi Arabia British make Hashemite emirs rulers of Transjordan and Iraqi mandates The British and Egypt British occupation in 1882 following Ahmad Orabi Rebellion Left the Egyptians with both Turkish khedives, British overlords British left Khedival government in place but ran Egyptian foreign policy, defense Lord Cromer directed British policy in Egypt. Attempted economic reforms to reduce debts, improve irrigation, public works. The masses of the Egyptian population realized little benefit from the changes. Ayan (greater landlords) able to extend control farther into the countryside The great estates came to monopolize most Egyptian land Small landholders reduced to tenancy. Resistance to the British administration of Egypt Resistance by the elite Emerged from within the lower officer ranks of Egyptian army, Emerged from within the ranks of the Egyptian business classes Journalists were particularly prominent in the nationalist movement Journalists attacked the British administration and British racial attitudes Three nationalist parties were created To forestall more violent nationalist movements The British granted a new constitution to Egypt Allowed parliamentary representation When World War I broke out, the British suspended the constitution and imposed martial law Revolt in Egypt 1919 Martial law in Egypt during World War I imposed great hardships on the peasantry British refusal to allow Egyptian delegation to attend the peace conferences This touched off a rebellion but British able to regain control British forced to recognize nationalist Wafd party under Sa'd Zaghlul Between 1922 and 1936 British forces were progressively withdrawn to the Suez Canal zone They reserved their right to defend their interests in Egypt The Wafd party failed to enact significant social or economic reforms. During World War I Most Western-educated African elites remained loyal to the colonial regimes. The war effort disrupted African economies Drew heavily on African manpower: Senegalese, West African, South African troops helped allies German resistance led to a guerrilla war in East Africa for four years Women assumed many traditionally male roles during war After the war Europeans kept few promises of economic improvement This led to strikes and civil disobedience Tariffs and restrictions to trade hurt weak African economies Dissatisfaction with colonialism spread First nationalist movements appeared in Africa in the 1920s Emerged in the guise of unworkable pan-African organizations Charismatic African-American leaders had significant roles in the formation of pan-African movements In French Africa A literary genre, négritude arose Celebrated black culture as an attack on European racist attitudes Influenced by the Harlem Renaissance in the US; Surrealism, World Socialism Movement was very influential in Caribbean, Brazil, too linking areas of African diaspora French Africans often took path of assimilation into French culture AS BLACKS to gain rights Little involvement of Africans in any aspect of colonial government – reserved for French Europeans In British colonies British utilized African policemen, lower bureaucrats, civil servants, magistrates Their influence in colonial government grew to form a nationalist and Pan-African movement Actual political parties were slow to emerge Political associations began the process of developing a mass base and agitating for political reform Educated African elite and businessmen often became spokesmen for nationalist movements Changing Realities World War I undermined Europe's global dominance At end of war the United States was clearly the greatest world power Rise of United States and Japan in world influence First non-European powers to do so broke European monopoly Communism as Anti-Imperialism Revolution broke out in Russia and the East Soviet state challenged traditional western dominance Offered an alternative to western capitalist, democratic models Socialism as Change Socialists gained ground in the western democracies Replaced more traditional conservatives and liberals Changes in Gender Roles Gender roles changed dramatically in Western Europe, in Russia Began to change in Eastern Europe, Turkey During war, many women allowed to assume economic roles which they had never had After World War I many Western states gave women the vote The War Encouraged Economic Changes Increased industrialization in the US and changing industries in war powers significant Export by Latin American nations added non-European nations to the Global Economic scene Beginning of Decolonialization The empires of the Entente nations actually grew but change had begun Liberation movements gained ground as a result of the war Successful nationalist revolutions in Saudi Arabia and Turkey offered hope Indian independence movement had gained in influence Africans granted roles during war which they had not had before
