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CHAPTER FOCUS
SECTION 1 The Age of Napoleon
SECTION 2 Revolution and Reform
SECTION 3 Growth of Nationalism
CHAPTER SUMMARY & STUDY GUIDE
CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
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Overview
• Chapter 35 discusses the political conflicts
that transformed Europe during the 1800s. 
– Section 1 analyzes how reforms and
military conquests by Napoleon helped
spread French revolutionary ideas. 
– Section 2 describes the political
movements that challenged the
traditional European political order. 
– Section 3 discusses how each
European country accepted or resisted
change.
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Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
• discuss how Napoleon influenced France.

• describe how the Congress of Vienna
brought peace to Europe. 
• analyze how revolutions in the 1800s
threatened the Congress System. 
• examine the effects of nationalism on Italy,
Germany, and Austria.
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Read to Discover
• How Napoleon influenced France and
formed the Grand Empire 
• How the Congress of Vienna
established a balance of power and
brought peace to Europe 
• How liberals, nationalists, and socialists
led revolutions that threatened the
Congress System 
• What effects nationalism had on Italy,
Germany, and Austria
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the information. The Chapter Focus is on page 561 of your textbook.
Terms to Learn
• plebiscite 
• Napoleon Bonaparte 
• abdicate 
• Karl Marx 
• proletariat 
Places to Locate
• Waterloo 
People to Know
• Vienna 
• Sardinia
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Why It’s Important
In the early 1800s, Napoleon occupied
the center of the European stage. He
came closer than anyone else to unifying
Europe politically. In doing so, he spread
revolutionary ideas. After his downfall,
there was a return to the old order.
However, the ideas of the Napoleonic era
had taken hold, and from 1820 to 1848,
revolutions took place in country after
country. The years after 1848 saw the
breakup of the old order and the
formation of new nations.
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The Age of Napoleon
• Napoleon rose to power in France after ten
years of revolution and war, starting a chain
of events that affected all of Europe.
Section 1 begins on page 561 of your textbook.
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Napoleon
• When the French Revolution began,
Napoleon Bonaparte was a lieutenant in
the French army, then became a general at
age 24, but wanted more. 
• When Napoleon learned that Austria,
Russia, and Great Britain had defeated
French forces in Europe, he and two
members of the Directory took over
the government. 
• Napoleon set up a new government called
the Consulate, placed himself at its head,
and took the title of First Consul.
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Affairs at Home
• Once France was at peace, Napoleon set
out to make the Consulate strong and rich. 
• Napoleon also set to work to bring order
to the French legal system. 
• He developed the Napoleonic Code
which preserved the most important rights
won in the French Revolution: equality
before the law, trial by jury, and freedom
of religion. 
• Napoleon tried to make both Paris and
France more beautiful.
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Affairs at Home (cont.)
• Napoleon was very popular, and in 1802,
the people elected him First Consul for life
in a plebiscite, or popular vote. 
• Two years later, Napoleon became
emperor of France, crowning himself at
his coronation in the Cathedral of
Notre Dame.
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The Grand Empire
• Napoleon wanted to build a Grand
Empire to take the place of the Holy
Roman Empire. 
• By 1808 France’s boundaries included
much of Europe. 
• The countries in Napoleon’s Grand
Empire were strongly influenced by
France as French rulers made the
Napoleonic Code law, spreading French
Revolutionary ideas throughout Europe.
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The Grand Empire (cont.)
• In 1812, Napoleon’ s Grand Army invaded
Russia, but except for one battle, the
Russians did not fight. 
• Instead, they retreated, drawing the
French deeper into Russia and using a
scorched-earth policy, burning their
villages and food supplies, leaving nothing
for the advancing French. 
• Napoleon quickly raised another army, but
they were defeated by the united allied
forces of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and
Great Britain.
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The Grand Empire (cont.)
• In 1814, the allies took Paris, and Napoleon
was forced to abdicate, or give up the
throne, and was exiled to the island of Elba
off the coast of Italy. 
• The allies, under Britain's Duke of
Wellington, finally defeated Napoleon in
1815 at the Battle of Waterloo.
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Section Assessment
What was the Grand Empire?
It was the empire created
by Napoleon.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Why did Napoleon’s invasion of
Russia fail?
It failed because of Russia’s
scorched-earth policy and the bitter
Russian winter.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Understanding Cause and Effect
How did weaknesses of government
under the Directory help pave the
way for the rise of Napoleon?
Answers will vary. It is possible that
the disorder and debts of the
Directory encouraged Napoleon to
believe he could set up a new
government without a lot of
resistance, either from the Directory
or the people.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recreate the diagram on page 565
of your textbook, and use it to
summarize Napoleon’s
accomplishments in the areas of
government, education, law,
transportation, and the arts.
Answers will vary.
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Revolution and Reform
• After Napoleon’s defeat, representatives
from Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great
Britain met in Vienna to decide what to do
about France and the rest of Europe. 
• Their settlement brought peace to Europe
for a time and also set the stage for
revolution in many countries and reform
in some.
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The Congress of Vienna
• The Congress of Vienna was sometimes
called the “Waltzing Congress” because the
representatives spent much of their time at
dinners, dances, and fox hunts. 
• For a peaceful and stable Europe, they
established a balance of power, or equal
strength among countries, and divided
Napoleon’s Grand Empire. 
• The leaders of the Congress of Vienna
were against democracy and brought
back divine-right monarchy.
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Political Movements
• While the balance of power in Europe was
maintained for a number of years, the
revolutionary ideas spread by Napoleon’s
Grand Empire did not die. 
• One group against the Congress System,
or the political plan and division of Europe
set up by the Congress of Vienna, was the
liberals, who wanted political reform of
individual freedom, equal rights under the
law, and freedom of thought and religion.
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Political Movements (cont.)
• Another group that was against the
Congress System was the nationalists,
who wanted political independence for
areas where people shared the same
language, customs, and history. 
• A third group that was against the
Congress System was the socialists, who
wanted to end private ownership,
believing that the state, or the people as a
whole, should own all means of
production.
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Political Movements (cont.)
• Karl Marx, a German, believed the
proletariat, or industrial working class,
would rise up and take power. 
• Marx called his kind of socialism
communism.
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An Era of Revolution
• Beginning in 1820, liberals, nationalists, and
socialists led revolutions against the
Congress System. 
• After Louis XVIII died, his brother Charles X
took the throne and took actions to bring
back the Old Regime. 
• In response to Charles’ actions, the middle
class people overthrew the government, and
Charles X fled. 
• The July Revolution, as it was called, was a
victory for the middle class.
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An Era of Revolution (cont.)
• Under the rule of Louis-Philippe–Charles
X’s cousin–only the richest of the middle
class could vote. 
• People were angry because they wanted
a republic and universal male suffrage,
or the right of all adult males to vote. 
• News of the July Revolution touched off
rebellions in other countries. 
• In Great Britain, however, liberal reforms
were made by gradual change instead of
revolution.
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The Revolutions of 1848
• In 1848, another series of revolutions broke
out, and governments were overthrown. 
• Louis-Philippe had tried to be a “citizenking,” but his government served only the
rich, making industrial workers and middleclass liberals increasingly unhappy. 
• In February of 1848, when riots broke out in
the streets of Paris, Louis-Philippe fled, and
the revolutionary leaders declared the
Second French Republic.
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The Revolutions of 1848 (cont.)
• When the new National Assembly was
finally elected in April, it did away with the
national workshops, government run
factories established to create jobs.
Workers revolted against this move, but
were defeated by the army. 
• The National Assembly then drew up a
constitution, calling for a strong president to
be elected by universal male suffrage. 
• At the same time, the Second French
Republic was renamed the Second French
Empire with Louis-Napoleon–Napoleon’s
nephew–on the throne until 1870.
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The Revolutions of 1848 (cont.)
• The revolution in France was followed by
revolutions in other parts of Europe. 
• The revolutions of 1848 led to some
important changes.
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Section Assessment
What were two goals of the
Congress of Vienna?
They wanted to build a peaceful and
stable Europe and to crush
revolutionary ideas.
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the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
What were some of the results of
the revolutions of 1848?
In time, universal male suffrage
spread to most northern and western
European countries, and workers
began to form political parties.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Making Comparisons Which one of
the three groups–liberals,
nationalists, or socialists–would you
have supported in the 1800s? Why?
Answers will vary.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recreate the diagram on page 572
of your textbook, and use it to show
predictions made by
Karl Marx.
Predictions include: the working class
would rise up and take power; there
would be no hunger or poverty;
everybody would become equal;
governments would not be needed;
people would work because they
wanted to give something to society; in
return, they would be free to develop
their talents and interests.
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Growth of Nationalism
• Before long, the growth of nationalism
would destroy the balance of power that
had been established at Vienna. 
• Italy, Germany, and Austria were affected
by the growth of nationalism.
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Italy
• In 1848, eight of the nine Italian states were
under Austrian control, with only Sardinia
being independent. 
• Many nationalists in Italy looked to
Sardinia, whose prime minister, Count
Camillo di Cavour, believed in
industrialization, favored a constitutional
monarchy, and realized that Sardinia
needed help to drive the Austrians out
of Italy.
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Italy (cont.)
• That same year, an Italian nationalist
named Giuseppe Garibaldi led another
revolution in southern Italy. 
• Garibaldi taught guerrilla warfare to his
followers, a kind of fighting in which a
small band of soldiers behind enemy lines
would make surprise attacks on the
enemy and then go back into hiding.
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Italy (cont.)
• In 1861, the northern and southern
nationalist groups combined, formed the
Kingdom of Italy as a constitutional
monarchy, and Victor Emmanuel II of
Sardinia became king. 
• In 1870, the Papal States became part of
Italy, and Italian unification was complete.
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Germany
• Nationalist feelings were also strong in the
39 German states. 
• In 1834, many of the German states
signed a trade agreement promising not
to tax goods coming from other
German states. 
• In 1862, King William I named Count Otto
von Bismarck, a junker, or rich
landowner, prime minister of Prussia.
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Germany (cont.)
• In 1864, Bismarck joined with Austria to
defeat Denmark and to gain territory. 
• In 1870, Bismarck found an excuse to
go to war against France, and easily
defeated Germany’s oldest enemy. 
• Meanwhile, at Versailles, William I of
Prussia was named kaiser, or emperor,
of the new German Empire, including
both the northern and the southern
German states.
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Austria
• As nationalists in Italy and Germany
wanted to unify their nations, nationalists
in Austria threatened the unity of the
Austrian Empire. 
• The Austrian Empire was made up of
many nationalities. 
• By 1866, Austria had been defeated by
both Sardinia and Prussia.
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Austria (cont.)
• In 1867, a weakened Austria agreed to
create a dual monarchy for Austria and
Hungary, each with its own official
language, parliament, and laws. 
• The Magyars were satisfied with separate
countries, but other nationalities in
Austria-Hungary were not.
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Section Assessment
What did Garibaldi do to further
nationalism in Italy?
He led a revolution in southern Italy.
Soon after, the northern and southern
nationalist groups combined.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
How was Austria-Hungary
founded? How did most of its
citizens feel about this?
Magyar nationalists in Hungary
revolted, and Austria agreed to create
a dual monarchy with a common
emperor but separate language,
parliament, and laws.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Drawing Conclusions Why do
you think the Italian city-states
wanted to be a unified nation?
Explain.
They remembered ancient Rome’s
strength and that of Italian city-states.
They wanted to be strong and
dominant again.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recreate the diagram on page 576
of your textbook, and use it to
describe the importance of these
dates in the drive for German
unification: 1832, 1862, 1864, 1870.
1834–many German states sign
trade agreement; 1862–Otto von
Bismarck becomes prime minister of
Prussia; 1864–Bismarck joins Austria
to defeat Denmark; 1870–Bismarck
goes to war against France.
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Chapter Summary & Study Guide
• In 1804, Napoleon became emperor of
France. He then set out to conquer the rest
of Europe–a plan that nearly succeeded. 
• Although Napoleon created a strong central
government and a new code of laws, the
people of France still lost certain rights. 
• After Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress of
Vienna tried to establish a balance of power
in Europe and to restore divine-right
monarchy.
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Chapter Summary & Study Guide (cont.)
• Liberals, nationalists, and socialists
opposed the Congress System. 
• A series of revolutions broke out in many
European countries in 1820, 1830, and
1848. 
• Liberal reforms were made in Great Britain
without a revolution. 
• The revolutions of 1848 failed to overthrow
the Congress System, but they still had
lasting results, including the spread of
universal male suffrage and the rise of
socialism among workers.
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Chapter Summary & Study Guide (cont.)
• The rise of nationalism led to the unification
of Italy between 1859 and 1870 and the
unification of Germany between 1862 and
1871. 
• In the Austrian Empire, nationalism led to
the empire’s division into two separate
kingdoms–Austria and Hungary–each of
which had many different national groups
that wanted independence.
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Understanding the Main Idea
Why did the representatives at the
Congress of Vienna try to bring
back divine-right monarchy?
because they wanted to crush
revolutionary ideas
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the answer.
Understanding the Main Idea
Why did the temporary French
government of 1848 set up national
workshops?
to provide jobs for unemployed
workers
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the answer.
Understanding the Main Idea
How did Napoleon III help Italian
nationalists?
He helped the Sardinians when
Austria declared war on Sardinia.
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the answer.
Understanding the Main Idea
How did the German states
become unified?
by joining together to fight Denmark,
Austria, and France
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Understanding the Main Idea
What were some of the results of
the war between Prussia and
France?
Prussia won from France the rich
mining and manufacturing lands of
Alsace and Lorraine.
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Understanding the Main Idea
Why were national groups in
Austria-Hungary unhappy in the
1860s?
because each had its own language
and history and wanted to rule itself
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the answer.
Critical Thinking
What did Napolean reveal about
himself at his crowning as
emperor?
He thought he was above the
Church.
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the answer.
Critical Thinking
Do you think Napoleon’s
conquests were good or bad for
Europe? Explain your answer.
61
Critical Thinking
How important was nationalism in
Europe during the second half of the
1800s? Explain.
very important because it led to
important governmental changes in
Italy, Austria, Germany, and France
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the answer.
Critical Thinking
“Liberal reforms can only be made
with a revolution.” Do you agree or
disagree with this statement?
Explain.
Answers will vary. Great Britain
adopted reforms without a revolution.
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the answer.
Geography in History
Location Refer to the map on page
564 of your textbook. During
Napoleon’s time, as during other
historical eras, Paris was an
important city. What is the latitude
of Paris? What is the longitude?
Describe its relative location.
about 49º N, 2º E
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the answer.
Think about the following group of
words and tell what they have in
common with one another in the
context of this chapter: liberals,
nationalists, socialists. How are
they different?
Answers will vary.
65
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the answer.
Explore online information about the
topics introduced in this chapter.
Click on the Connect button to launch your browser and go to the Human
Heritage: A World History Web site. At this site, you will find interactive
activities, current events information, and Web sites correlated with the
chapters and units in the textbook. When you finish exploring, exit the
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67
68
1804
1815
Napoleon
crowned
Napoleon
defeated
1867
Dual monarchy
of AustriaHungary
1814
1848
Congress of
Vienna meets
Universal male
suffrage begins to
spread
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Otto von Bismarck
1815–1898
German Prime Minister
Otto von Bismarck grew up the son of a
wealthy landowner, whose noble ancestry
stretched back more than five centuries.
He was only an average student and
showed little promise until his 30s, when
he married and entered politics. For the
rest of his life, Bismarck demonstrated the
discipline he had lacked as a youth. He
was the architect of German unification
and served as the first chancellor, or
prime minister, of unified Germany.
People called him the “Iron Chancellor.”
69
Charcoal and Freedom
Garibaldi
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Charcoal and Freedom
Carbonari, which means “charcoal
burners” in Italian, was the name of
one of the first secret societies formed
to overthrow foreign rule in Italy.
Charcoal is black, but it glows brightly
when burning. Italian rebels
associated the glow with the light of
freedom and liberty.
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Garibaldi
Between 1850 and 1860, Giuseppe
Garibaldi lived on Staten Island in New
York City. Here he made a meager
living working in a friend’s candle
factory.
72
French Law
France enforced the Napoleonic Code
in its European empire and its North
American colonies. Today Louisiana,
once part of France’s lands in America,
is the only state with laws based on the
Napoleonic Code.
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Germany
Bismarck fought three wars to unify
Germany, but another war–World War
II–left Germany divided for 45 years.
In 1990, West Germany and East
Germany were reunited as one
country.
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Predicting
Consequences
• Did you ever wish you could see into the
future? 
• Predicting future events is very difficult. 
• You can, however, develop skills that will
help you identify the logical consequences
of decisions or actions.
Continued on next slide.
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the information.
Predicting
Consequences
• Follow these steps to help you
accurately predict consequences. 
• Review what you already know about a
situation by listing facts, events, and
people’s responses. 
• The list will help you recall events and
how they affected people.
Continued on next slide.
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the information.
Predicting
Consequences
• Analyze patterns. 
• Try to determine what the patterns show. 
• Use your knowledge and observations of
similar situations. 
• In other words, ask yourself, “What were
the consequences of a similar decision or
action that occurred in the past?”
Continued on next slide.
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the information.
Predicting
Consequences
• Analyze each of the potential
consequences by asking, “How likely is it
that this will occur?” 
• Make a prediction.
Continued on next slide.
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the information.
Predicting
Consequences
Study the chart on page 571 of your textbook. Then
answer the questions that follow.
Continued on next slide.
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Predicting
Consequences
Review the information on the chart on
page 571 of your textbook. What
patterns do you notice? What do the
facts tell you about political affairs in
Europe during the early 1800s?
You notice the pattern of revolution that
spread across Europe. The facts
suggest a period of turbulent political
affairs, filled with rebellions and efforts
to restore order.
Continued on next slide.
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the answer.
Predicting
Consequences
Suppose one of the leaders who
took part in the Congress of Vienna
asked you to predict what to expect
in the mid-1800s. What would you
say? Was the Congress System
safe from future threats? Explain.
Past patterns indicate a potential for
future upheavals. As a result, the
Congress System would probably
face threats in the years ahead.
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the answer.
Comparing Historical
Maps
• A comparison of historical maps can reveal
the changes that occur in the political
features of an area over time. 
• Look at the map on page 564 of your
textbook. 
• Now, look at the map on page 567 of your
textbook. 
• Note that both show about the same area,
but at different times.
Continued on next slide.
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Comparing Historical
Maps
• The map on page 564 shows Europe’s
political aspects during Napoleon’s rule. 
• The map on page 567 shows Europe
after the Congress of Vienna. 
• To compare historical maps, first look at
both maps to make sure the same
region is being illustrated.
Continued on next slide.
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Comparing Historical
Maps
• Then, study the boundaries and note any
changes. 
• Study also the names of the countries to
see if they have changed. 
• For example, note that the Grand Duchy
of Warsaw was subject to Napoleon. 
• After the congress of Vienna, however,
both its boundaries and its name
changed.
Continued on next slide.
84
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Comparing Historical
Maps
Study the maps on pages 564 and 567 of your
textbook. Then answer the questions that follow.
Continued on next slide.
85
Comparing Historical
Maps
How was the French Empire divided
after the Congress of Vienna?
into France; the Netherlands;
Sardinia; the Papal States; and parts
of Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Prussia
Continued on next slide.
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the answer.
Comparing Historical
Maps
What countries were not directly
affected by either Napoleon’s rule
or the Congress of Vienna?
Portugal, the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland, Sweden,
and the Ottoman Empire were not
directly affected.
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