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Iran Through the Looking Glass History, Reform, and Revolution Part 1: From Cyrus to Reza Shah Iran’s Culture and history played an important role in the Iranian Revolution of 1979 The Iranians have obtained these cultural values through their long and complex history Early Iran Formally known as Persia Many tribes inhabited this area, they spoke different languages and had different ethnic origins But these tribes were pulled together by one environmental factor, The scarcity of water The desire for the equal distribution of this scarce resource gave them 2 major cultural ties – – Development of religion that emphasized justice and fairness Development of an effective government able to implement the rules that governed society What Was Zoroastrianism? Born around the 10th century BCE, a prophet named Zoroaster traveled through Iran teaching about the responsibilities of humans Zoroastrianism emphasized order, social justice, the idea that people were on earth to improve the world, and ultimate accountability before a single god What were the contributions of the Achamenian Empire? (530-330 bc) Persian King Cyrus was the first in a dynasty called the Achamenian Empire Cyrus and his successors developed a postal system, built roads established a legal system, taxation system and a gvmt so efficient that the Romans later used it as a model for their own gvmt Ended aprox. 330 BC after Alexander the Great invaded 130 years later the Greeks were overthrown and a series of nomadic wars insued A man named Ardeshir reestablished central rule over the tribes This era was known as the Sassanian Dynasty and lasted until 637 BC What were the important developments of the Sassanian Dynasty? (220-647 CE) One of the main goals was to unify the empire and to create political stability –Persian culture flourished in this era Rigid Class structures developed with the king at the top of the hierarchy The barriers between classes were rigid These social rules marked the beginning of a political order and hierarchy that was viewed as oppressive and unjust The peoples opposition to this hierarchy set the stage for the arrival of Islam Islam and the Safavids Islam arrived when the Arabs conquered Iran between 637-651 BC The message of justice and fairness appealed to the many Iranians who resented the Sassanian rule Islam shared some common ideas with Zoroastrianism making it easier for Islam to take root By the 10th century most Iranians were Islamic but they still held on to their pre-Islam culture Who was the Prophet Mohammad? According to Islam in 610 CE, Mohammad had a revelation form the angel Gabriel His preaching had a great effect on the impoverished people because he talked about sharing wealth with the poor About 100 years after Mohammad’s death a controversy divided the Islamic Faith into two branches, the Shi’i and the Sunni Shi’ism Shi’ism is the main form of Islam in Iran today The Muslims elected a new prophet after Mohammad's death called a Caliph The Shi’a only recognize the fourth caliph, Ali, as a true caliph because he was related to Mohammad Shi’a- followers of Ali Later the Shi’a later split up over succession conflicts – – Twelvers because they recognize 12 Imams (leaders) after Ali Seveners (Isma’ilis) because they recognize the seventh leader What was economic life like during the Safavid Dynasty? (1501-1736) To gain control of the largely nomadic population Shah Isma’il granted tribal leaders large areas of land in return for payments and taxes The Safavids built roads and exported silk and other textiles as well as ceramics to European countries The most famous Safavid ruler, Shah Abbas encouraged support of other religions to help trade with Europe Shah Abbas collected huge amounts of money in taxes and trades, he used this money to fund a large army to protect the Iranians from the boardering Ottoman Empire The Qajar Dynasty (1779-1925) Established by Agha Mohammad Khan in 1779 The Qajars weren’t really religious. This enhanced the separation of the clergy that had greater influence over the population than the Shah In the early 19th century almost ½ of the population was nomadic, the leaders of these tribes were of the appointed as governors of their area and the surrounding areas The Qajar dynasty was hierarchical and corrupt, with the citizens taxes going to provide a life of luxury for the Shah The economy lacked the infrastructure to grow making it susceptible to interventions by other countries (Britain & Russia) looking to expand their own wealth How did Russia and Britain compete over Iran? Russia wanted to expand southward and obtain ports on the Persian Gulf Britain viewed this expansion as a threat to their colony, India. Iran fought (and lost) 2 wars with Russia and eventually signed the Treaty of Turkomanchai which allowed Russian merchants special privileges and favorable Tariff Britain informed Russia that it would not tolerate any further expansion in Iran. Iran became a buffer state between the 2 nations empires Britain later negotiated a treaty with Iran that gave their merchants similar rights as the Russians What were concessions? With Britain and Russia competing for trade in Iran, the shah decided to grant “concessions” to foreign merchants They gave foreigners the right to develop parts of Iran’s economy British and Russian squabbles over these concessions slowed the development of infrastructure in Iran The Foreign influence and wealth, along with the thought that they were plundering Iran lead to increased distrust of Europeans and other outsiders, this played a powerful role in Iran’s politics Why did the Shah’s policies anger Iranians? The concessions benefitted the British, Russian and the Shah but did little to help the political hardships in Iran’s economy The Iranians who had contact with Europeans of had studied abroad worried that Iran had fallen behind The government of Iran had stood in contrast with the organized European governments They viewed western science and technology as the key to building Iranian national power and wealth These brought liberal ideas, In response to these ideas, Nasir al-Din Shah resorted to repressive measures. Constitutional Revolution of 19061911 Some Iranians believed that the influx of foreigners, the Shah’s corruption and economic hardship threatened the well-being of Iranians Intellectuals, merchants, and clergy formed secret societies to discuss their unhappiness about the state of Iran Intellectuals- wanted an Iran without the absolute and corrupt monarchy Merchants- wanted an economic system that would be more fair and efficient Clergy- wanted to strengthen the role of Shi’i Islam in the government The intellectuals brought the idea of reform to Iran but the clergy spread it to the masses How did protests lead to a parliament and constitution? 1905- Protests against the Shah began The public demands for change led to the Constitutional Revolution Protestors demanded a constitution and a parliament (Majlis- Persian word for parliament) The shah, who was mortally ill and had hoped to preserve the monarchy, agreed 1906- Iran’s first elections for the parliament were held How did the Constitution change Iranian politics? Majlis received authority over treaties, loans, budgets, and concessions, and the power to appoint and dismiss cabinet members Constitution defined the rights of the Iranian citizens Members of the Majlis debated each other in public and had to answer to the citizens Twelver was designated as the official religion of Iran, and a group of clergy was hired to make sure that the government didn’t contradict the principles of Shi’ism How did foreign roles in Iran help the Shah weaken the new constitution? Mohammad Ali Shah didn’t want to relinquish his power as monarch Public discontent helped him helped him challenge the new constitution He argued that the new gvnmt was even worse at protecting Iran from foreign interference After encouragement from Russia the shah ordered his army to attack the Majlis building and had the officers arrested and executed Once the society was divided and the central government was weakened fighting broke out 1909- Pro-constitution militias deposed the shah and replaced him with his 9 year old son How did Russia and Britain respond to war in Iran? 1911-Britain sent troop to protect the newly discovered oil fields The occupation of the Russians and British increased resentment because they were seen as helping the Shah end the Constitutional Revolution How did WWI affect Iran? Iran’s economy shrunk by 25% Parts of Iran were occupied by the Ottoman Empire, Russia, and Great Britain Iran considered itself an unwilling victim of war and petitioned for redress at the Paris Peace Conference The Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the withdrawal of Russian Troops from the north Britain became the biggest influence The Iranian PM decided to embrace the British involvement, in hope that it would help strengthen the central government Anglo-Persian Agreement of 1919 would have made Iran a British protectorate The Majlis refused to ratify the agreement Reza Shah (1925-1941) Pahlavi Dynasty 1921-Colonel Reza Khan took 3,000 soldiers into Tehran arrested some leading politicians, and demanded the Shah to appoint a new PM 1923-Reza Khan had become PM himself, expanded the armed forces and purchased weapons 1925- Majlis abolished the Qajar dynasty and appointed Reza Khan as shah What did Reza Shah hope to change in Iran? Hoped to build Iran into a modern state and economy like the western states of Europe He worked to strengthen the central gvmnt, concentrate his power Ordered the construction of new roads, railroads, factories, hospitals and ports Expanded public education for both boys and girls Limited the tribes’ movements and forced them to disarm How did Reza Shah try to reduce the power of the ulama? Reza Shah believed that the clergy’s power prevented Iran’s modernization, so many of his plans were designed to weaken the clergy and make Iran a more secular society Central component of his reforms included significant changes in the legal system New laws required men to dress in the western style and prohibited hijab (veiling) for women Many Iranians embraced his modernization of Iran, his efforts to reduce Islam nade him unpopular Enforced his policies with Violence, terror and fear 1935- Religious leaders protested the forced unveiling of women at a mosque. Reza Shah had the army massacre more than 100 protestors How did the lives of women change during the reign of Reza Shah? The Shah encouraged the education of women, though 3x as many boys received a formal education Women began to have more opportunities for work. Women were admitted to the University Mainly only affected women in middle and upper classes and did little to change traditional assumptions about the subjugation of women to men How did Reza Shah attempt to limit the influence of foreign powers in Iran? Reza Shah attempted to reduce the role of foreign powers in Iran- particularly Britain The Shah prohibited the sale of property to foreigners, refused to take loans from foreign countries to fund his building projects, and ended a concession that had given the British the sole right to manage Iranian currency Britain controlled its monopoly on Iranian oil How did the German presence in Iran lead to the Shah’s abdication? 1930’s the shah allowed Nazi Germany to play an increasing role in Iran The Shah’s deep distrust of Britain hoped a German presence would balance the power of the British Allied leaders worried that Nazi Germany would use Iran as a base for military operations against the USSR After the Allies had expelled the Nazis, Reza Shah gave the throne to his young son, Mohammad Reza Mohammad Reza was seen as someone whom the allies could influence How did the occupation of Iran during WWII affect Iran’s Politics? During WWII, neither the shah nor the Majlis had final control over the policy in Iran The US sent financial advisors to assist the Iranian Government and military officers who trained the Iranian police and army The US and the USSR wanted a share in Iran’s oil after the war How did WWII affect Iran’s economy? The wartime allies took the use of Iran’s transportation facilities like the railroad to send supplies, making internal trade more difficult for Iran There was little money for the government to invest in infrastructure or programs to develop Iran’s economy By the time WWII ended Iran was economically destroyed, still subject to foreign influence, and ruled by a weak shah Part II: Mossadegh to Khomeini At the end of WWII Iran stood at a crossroads Britain, the Soviet Union, and the US agreed to withdraw their occupation forces six months after the end of the war The constitution of 1906 was still in affect, and with the departure of the dictator Reza Shah, the Majlis and PM assumed increasingly important roles in Iranian politics How did the shah attempt to strengthen his power? Following an assassination attempt in 1949, Mohammad Reza Shah drew on public sympathy to back his efforts to increase his power He put pressure on the Majlis to accept a new law that would allow him to dissolve the Majlis and call for new elections. He was also given the power to appoint a new PM Cont. Many different political views developed during this time The lower class was concerned about basic economic issues 60% of Iranians who lived in towns and cities lived in slums The upper class wished for a more efficient government, free from foreign control University graduates used their education to join and lead social protest movements Mohammad Mossadegh and Oil Nationalization Increasing profits and rising prices brought more and more profit to the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, but no more to the Iranian gvmt By the late 1940’s, Iran had become the world’s fourth largest oil exporter, and produced 90% of Europe’s oil While the AIOC provided jobs for many Iranians, they were low level with no chance of moving up in the company Working conditions were atrocious, paying only around 50cents a day with no vacations or sick days Riots in Abadan (1946) demanded that the gvmt renegotiate the terns of the arrangement with the AIOC What were the results of negotiations between AIOC and Iran? Britain had built its empire by extracting resources from its colonies greatly advantageous Local interests were never a concern Britain manipulated local politicians with bribes or coercion Britain needed the oil money for its post war expenses They offered to train more Iranians for high level positions and promised that royalty payments would not drop below 4 million pounds per year ($134 million) Why did the shah want to support the Supplemental Agreement with Britain? British officials were responsible for Mohammad Reza succeeding his father to the throne, so Mohammad felt he owed the British for this He thought he could strengthen his power by helping the British even though the agreement benefited Britain more that Iran The Shah ordered the cabinet members to accept this agreement, which they did, but the Majlis refused to pass it Why did the Majlis refuse to support the Supplemental Agreement? The constitution required the Majlis to ratify the agreement for it to become law Majlis knew that the public was strongly against accepting the terms dictated by the British, but they were afraid to anger the shah The Shah used bribes and electoral fraud to place his supporters in the Majlis Prominent politician named Mohammad Mossadegh led protests in Tehran for new and fair elections of the Majlis Many political groups sprang forth at this time with one united factor: the desire to nationalize Iran’s oil How did the shah respond to demands of the political parties? In Feb.. 1951 Mossadegh proposed full nationalization of the AIOC The PM rejected this proposal. On march 7, a member of the Fedaian-e Islam assassinated him On March 15, the Majlis passed a bill nationalizing the AIOC. They also requested that the shah appoint Mossadegh as the PM How did Britain respond to the nationalization? Britain increased its military forces in the region, filed a complaint with the ICJ and asked the UN Security council to intervene The US worried that a continuing crisis in Iran could lead to increased Soviet influence or even control of Iran Britain led an international boycott of Iranian oil British spying proved to Mossadegh that the British could not be trusted In Oct. 1952, Mossadegh broke diplomatic relations with Britain and expelled all British officials form Iran What other reforms did Mossadegh attempt to enact in Iran? Mossadegh was a strong nationalist who hoped to rid Iran of foreign influence Strong advocate for the rule of law and the Constitution Reduce the power of the shah and the size of the army Enact land reforms- reduce power of wealthy landowners and allow peasants to own their own land How did the British and the Americans overthrow Mossadegh ? US officials worried about Iran falling under Soviet influence US & Britain aimed to rid Iran of the Mossadegh gvmnt, and increase the power of the shah, whom they thought would do their bidding The CIA and the SIS came up with a plan to overthrow Mossadegh Cont. The plan was to convince the Iranian people that Mossadegh was corrupt, an enemy of Islam, and procommunist CIA agents bribed newspapers and religious leaders to spread these Ideas CIA also paid for physical attacks on Religious leaders and made it appear as if the attacks had been by Mossadegh supporters Us involvement turned Iran into a hotbed of instability, rioting and chaos Aug 19, 1953 they captured Mohammad Mossadegh He was dismissed as prime minister Royal Dictatorship To avoid a repeat of the threats to his power the Mohammad Reza Shah took steps to ensure that these events would not occur again He had the support of the US and Britain, who wanted a stable, oil-producing Iran as an ally against the USSR What steps did the shah take to consolidate his power? The shah moved to settle the oil dispute: Iran would receive 50% of oil revenues, similar to other US deals in the Region Banned the Pro-soviet Tudeh party Formed SAVAK (Intelligence and Security Organization of the Country), a secret police organization which he used to hunt down his opponents, known for its mistreatment, torture and execution of opponents US gave more than $500 million in military aid to the shah; shah followed a strongly Pro-American foreign policy And the Shah only allowed 2 political parties to exist which were both under his control The White Revolution: “Plagued by the West” An economic downturn in Iran coincided with US pressure on the shah to ease restrictions on political expression as a conditioned for ongoing financial and military aid As the repression eased, unrest and discontent simmered again in Iran A Cleric named Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini opposed the shah’s close relations with the US, Iran’s sale of oil to Israel, the corruption of the regime, and Iran’s failure to help its masses of poor people What was the White Revolution? Not a revolution at all Name given to reforms the shah adopted to reduce the growing unrest Most important reform was the redistributing land to peasant farmers and sharecroppers, giving women the right to vote and creating the Literacy Corps (increasing education) Gave 2 million peasants ownership of the land that they farmed This took land away from wealthy landowners as well as the ulama who used the land to support religious schools and mosques 75% of the peasants did not receive enough land to even reach a level of subsistence How did the shah change the status of women? He gave women the right to vote and increased educational and employment opportunities He also introduced laws that gave women more rights in marriage Polygamy was still permitted, but now the husband had to obtain permission of his current wife before taking another Why were relations with the US a sore point for many Iranians? The shah spent hundreds of millions of dollars on US weapons The US was happy to supply most of it’s advanced weapons to an ally against the USSR Majlis approved a law that made Americans residing in Iran exempt from Iranian laws and taxation, the Ayatollah Khomeini spoke out, risking the wrath of the shah Khomeini believed the shah and his reforms were an assault on Islam and the role of the clergy in Iranian society Khomeini considered the shah to be an enemy on Islam and a ruler who was unconcerned about the welfare of the Iranian people Why did Khomeini’s message appeal to so many Iranians? Khomeini’s ideas struck a chord with Iranians of many classes and ideologies When the shah’s soldiers killed protesting theology students, Khomeini compared the shah to the man who had ordered the killing of Iman Hussein, a central figure in Shi’ism The students were seen as Shi’i martyrs Not all Iranians agreed with Khomeini’s ideas but they were pleased to have someone speak out against the shah What important idea did Khomeini develop in exile? The shah ordered Khomeini arrested and exiled to Najaf in Iraq, a shrine frequently by Iranian pilgrims These pilgrims would smuggle pamphlets and cassette recordings made by Khomeini back into Iran Khomeini developed a religious and political framework for Iran’s future Frame work called Velayat-e Faquh –Guardianship of the Jurist Thought that clergy should be the ultimate conscience of the state And that an Islamic gvmnt needed to replace the corrupt influence of kings, which believed were illegitimate rulers How did the shah respond to Khomeini? The shah used SAVAK to suppress and weaken the religious leadership in Iran Prevented large religious gatherings from taking place The shah hoped to reduce the influence of Islam by replacing it with Iranian nationalism and by emphasizing monarchy as the lynchpin of the Iranian nation 1971- more than $100 million (almost 500 million in today’s dollars) was spent for a celebration al Persopolis only a few wealthy or powerful Iranians were invited For many, $100 million dollars spent on a banquet while Iranians remained in poverty illustrated his lack of compassion and judgment How did opposition begin to grow? The ulama quietly spread the word that the shah’s celebration of the pre-Islamic kings showed his disrespect for Islam The shah repressed political dissent, but small groups met in secret SAVAK fiercely repressed dissent through arrests, torture, and executions. 1975- shah’s efforts to tighten control, made 1 political party He was able to remain in power for 3 reasons: brutal suppression of his opponents and political dissent, nearly unconditional support from the US & Britain, vast amounts of money brought into Iran through oil revenues How did the rising price of oil affect Iran? 1973- Arab-Israeli War led Arab nations to impose an oil boycott on nations that supported Israel Oil prices doubled worldwide, the shah pushed OPEC to double the prices again due to the huge sums of money now flowing into Iran The shah devoted new oil revenue to large scale industry and agriculture, and billions of dollars on the most advanced US armaments The new large-scale agricultural business failed to produce more food. Shortages led to price increases outpaced growth in wages How did international criticism of Iran’s human rights record affect Iran? Amnesty International had drawn attention to Iran’s terrible record on human rights 1975 The shah, anxious to restore its international image, loosened press censorship and promised to allow more political participation This hindered the shah’s ability to use brutality and force against those who dared to oppose him publicly Those who dared speak out called for the 1906 constitution to be followed They also demanded freedom of the press and fair elections How did the shah’s efforts to discredit Khomeini backfire? In Jan. 1978, a gvmnt newspaper published an article attacking Khomeini in an effort to discredit him Leading members of the clergy who opposed the shah called for Iranians to protest, and then attend mosques for forty days to mourn the slaying of the Iranian martyrs by the shah, in accordance with the Islamic tradition Protests were mainly peaceful, except in the city of Tabriz where the gvnmt sent in tanks to control the demonstrations, and killed more than 100 protesters The crowds attacked buildings that they considered symbols of the West, like banks liquor stores, and movie theatres The shah was loosing his iron grip on Iran 1979: Iranians Debate Their Future 1978- the shah imposed a new economic policy that was intended to help the economy, instead it froze wages and lead to a sharp increase in unemployment The protests had moved beyond demanding the restoration of the constitution to demanding the death of the shah Sept 8, 1978 soldiers with tanks put down a massive protest in Tehran. Hundreds died on this day which would be known as Black Friday In early Dec. more than 2 million people took to the streets of Tehran Many soldiers especially those who had been drafted into the army, refused to fire on unarmed demonstrators, some even joined the protests Cont. The PM , Shapour Bahkriar, negotiated a departure for the shah On Jan. 16 1979 the shah left, people sand and danced and celebrated Khomeini announced that he would return from exile, he was seen as the leader who ended the tyranny of the shah Many Iranians saw the PM as a puppet of the US and a tratior because he was appointed by the shah, but he vowed to review foreign contracts, eliminate SAVAK and to cut back on military Khomeini claimed that he had appointed a man named Mahdi Bazargan as the actual prime minister Cont. In March 1979 a referendum was held. Iranians could only vote for or against forming an Islamic republic 98% of the 20 Million Iranians voted for an Islamic republic, process of drafting a new constitution began Iran was in turmoil: groups from all points of the political spectrum attempted to assert that their vision for the future of Iran was the correct one The unity Iranians had used to overthrow the shah was dissolving