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OUT OF MANY
A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE
Chapter 9
An Empire for Liberty
1790 - 1824
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Part One
Introduction
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Chapter Focus Questions
Where did the new nation find economic
opportunities in the world market?
How did Jefferson’s presidency calm the political
differences of the 1790s?
What values were embodied in republican
agrarianism?
What unresolved issues between the United States
and Britain led to the War of 1812?
What were the causes of Indian resistance and
how did the War of 1812 resolve them?
How did the Missouri Compromise reveal the
dangers of expansion?
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Part Two
American Communities:
Expansion Touches Mandan
Villages on the Upper Missouri
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American Communities: Expansion Touches
Mandan Villages on the Upper Missouri
Lewis and Clark visited the Mandan villages in
what is now North Dakota.
The Mandan lived by agriculture and hunting and
lived in matrilineal clans.
The male chiefs met with Lewis and Clark who
offered them a military and economic alliance.
Americans established Fort Clark as a trading
base.
Americans brought diseases like smallpox that
wiped out the vast majority of Mandans.
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Part Three
North American Communities
from Coast to Coast
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The Former American Colonies
Only 3 percent of Americans lived in cities.
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston,
Boston, and New York dominated trade.
In 1800, the United States was surrounded
by European colonies.
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Northern Neighbors: British North
America and Russian North America
The heart of British North America was the former French
colony of Quebec. Loyalists comprised most of the other
settlers.
The American Revolution caused Great Britain to create a
national legislature under strict executive control.
Russian settlements in Alaska were an extension of its
conquest of Siberia.
The Russians established Sitka in 1804.
Russia established new settlements in California, including
Fort Ross.
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This view shows Sitka, the center of Russian activities in Alaska, in 1827.
Russian architectural styles and building techniques are apparent in the Church
of St. Michael the Archangel in the right background, contrasting with the Asian
and Indian origins of most of Sitka’s inhabitants.
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Spanish Colonies
To protect their interests against Russian
and British expansion, the Spanish had
established a chain of missions throughout
California.
The Spanish also controlled New Orleans,
though in 1800 it was an international port.
Americans were concerned that whomever
controlled New Orleans could choke off
commerce along the Mississippi River.
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Haiti and the Caribbean
The Caribbean posed strong challenges
because of the sugar industry.
The Caribbean slave societies were jolted
by the successful slave revolt in Haiti.
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Trans-Appalachia
The trans-Appalachia West was the most
rapidly growing region of the United States.
By 1800, 500,000 Americans lived in
Trans-Appalachia.
Cincinnati served as major trading center
for the Ohio River Valley.
River traffic to and from New Orleans
increased annually, though Westerners were
concerned over who controlled the city.
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America in 1800
Map: North America in 1800
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MAP 9.1 North America in 1800 In 1800, the new United States of America shared the North
American continent with territories held by the European powers: British Canada, French Louisiana
(secretly ceded that year to France by Spain), Spanish Florida, Spanish Mexico, and Russian Alaska,
expanding southward along the Pacific coast. Few people could have imagined that by 1850, the
United States would span the continent. But the American settlers who had crossed the Appalachians
to the Ohio River Valley were already convinced that opportunity lay in the West.
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Part Four
A National Economy
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Cotton and the Economy of the Young
Republic
Chart: American Export Trade, 1790 - 1815
Most Americans lived in rural, agricultural
communities.
The plantation regions of the South were
heavily involved in marketing crops
overseas.
Trade with Britain was considerably less
than before the Revolution.
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FIGURE 9.1 American
Export Trade, 1790–
1815 This graph shows
how completely the
American shipping boom
was tied to European
events. Exports, half of
which were reexports,
surged when Britain and
France were at war and
America could take
advantage of its neutral
status. Exports slumped
in the brief period of
European peace
from1803 to 1805 and
plunged following the
Embargo Act of 1807
and the outbreak of the
War of 1812.
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The cotton gin,
invented in
1793, was a
simple device
with huge
consequences.
It transformed
the South,
condemned
millions of
African
Americans to
slavery, and
was the single
largest source
of American
economic
growth before
1860.
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Shipping and The Economic Boom
In 1790, American shipping had been hurt by the
end of ties with Great Britain.
The outbreak of war in Europe and American
neutrality vastly expanded trade, fueling the
growth of American coastal cities.
The economic boom included:
American entry into the Northwest fur and China
markets;
an active shipbuilding industry.
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Part Five
The Jefferson Presidency
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Republican Agrarianism
Thomas Jefferson emerged as a strong
president with strong party backing.
Jefferson’s ideal was an agrarian republic of
roughly equal yeoman farmers. America’s
abundant land allowed Jefferson to envision
a nation of small family farms.
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Tall, ungainly, and diffident in manner, Thomas Jefferson was nonetheless a man
of genius: an architect, naturalist, philosopher and politician. His political
philosophy, republican agrarianism, is illustrated by this symbol of the Philadelphia
Society for Promoting Agriculture, in which the farmer exemplifies Jefferson’s
hopes for America. As he said, “those who labor in the earth are the chosen
people of God.”
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Jefferson’s Government
Jefferson’s promise to reduce the size
of the federal government.
The unfinished state of the nation’s
capital reflected the emphasis on local
communities.
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An Independent Judiciary
While removing Federalist
officeholders, Jefferson provoked a
landmark Supreme Court decision.
Marbury v. Madison did not restore
William Marbury to his post, but it
established the principle of judicial
review and an independent judiciary.
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Opportunity: The Louisiana
Purchase
Map: Louisiana Purchase
The conflict between France and Britain threatened
American security.
Napoleon’s acquisition of the Louisiana Territory
threatened American access to the Mississippi River.
Jefferson attempted to buy New Orleans, but accepted
the French offer to buy the entire territory.
The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United
States, fulfilling Jefferson’s desire for continued
expansion.
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MAP 9.2 Louisiana Purchase The Louisiana Purchase of 1803, the largest peaceful acquisition
of territory in U.S. history, more than doubled the size of the nation. The Lewis and Clark
expedition (1804–06) was the first to survey and document the natural and human richness of
the area. The American sense of expansiveness and continental destiny owes more to the
extraordinary opportunity provided by the Louisiana Purchase than to other factors.
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Incorporating Louisiana
The immediate issue was how to
incorporate the French and Spanish
inhabitants of the Louisiana territory.
The solution was to maintain aspects of
French institutions in Louisiana.
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Texas and the Struggle for Mexican
Independence
Acquisition of Louisiana put the United
States in conflict with Spain.
America now shared a vague boundary with
Mexico’s Texas.
Several populist revolts fueled a strong
independence movement in Mexico.
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Part Six
Renewed Imperial Rivalry
in North America
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Problems with Neutral Rights
In his second term, Jefferson faced problems
protecting American neutrality.
British ships seized American vessels trading in
the French West Indies and impressed sailors into
the Royal Navy.
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The Embargo Act
Congress first imposed a boycott and
then passed the Embargo Act on
foreign commerce that:
did not change British policy;
caused a deep depression; and
led to widespread smuggling.
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Madison and the Failure of
“Peaceable Coercion”
During the presidency of James
Madison, the Embargo Act was
repealed.
Other similar acts passed later also
proved ineffective.
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A Contradictory Indian Policy
Indian affairs remained among the most difficult
foreign problems.
Western tribes resisted American incursion into
their territory.
Jefferson hoped that Indians would either be
converted to white civilization or moved across
the Mississippi River. Neither policy won much
Indian support.
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Indian Resistance
The Shawnee emerged as the leading force of Indian
resistance in the Ohio Valley. Tecumseh sought refuge
further west.
His brother, Tenskwatawa, The Prophet, called for a
rejection of white ways.
Tecumseh formed a pan-Indian confederacy and was
initially defensive but soon advocated military
resistance.
While Tecumseh was in the South, a American army
defeated Tenskwatawa’s followers at Tippecanoe.
In response, Tecumseh formally allied with the British.
Map: Indian Resistance, 1790-1816
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MAP 9.3 Indian
Resistance, 1790–1816
American westward
expansion put relentless
pressure on the Indian
nations in the transAppalachian South and
West. The transAppalachian region was
marked by constant warfare
from the time of the earliest
settlements in Kentucky in
the 1780s to the War of
1812.Tecumseh’s Alliance in
the Old Northwest (1809–
11) and the Creek Rebellion
in the Old Southwest
(1813–14) were the
culminating struggles in
Indian resistance to the
American invasion of the
trans-Appalachian region.
Indian resistance was a
major reason for the War of
1812.
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(left) Tecumseh, a Shawnee military leader, and (right) his brother Tenskwatawa, a religious
leader called The Prophet, led a pan-Indian revitalization and resistance movement that posed
a serious threat to American westward expansion. Tecumseh traveled widely, attempting to
build a military alliance on his brother’s spiritual message. He achieved considerable success
in the Old Northwest, but less in the Old Southwest, where many Indian peoples put their faith
in accommodation. Tecumseh’s death at the Battle of the Thames (1813) and British
abandonment of their Shawnee allies at the end of the War of 1812 brought an end to
organized Indian resistance in the Old Northwest.
SOURCE (Right): 1830. Oil on canvas. 29 x 24 in. (73.7 x 60.9 cm) Location: Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC, U.S.A.
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Part Seven
The War of 1812
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The War Hawks
Map: War of 1812
Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun were
leaders of a new generation of War Hawks
from the South and West that supported war
as a means of expansion.
Madison’s declaration of war received no
Federalist support.
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MAP 9.4 The War of 1812 On land,
the War of 1812 was fought to define
the nation’s boundaries. In the North,
where military action was most
intense, American armies attacked
British forts in the Great Lakes region
with little success, and several
invasions of Canada failed. In the
South, the Battle of New Orleans
made a national hero of Andrew
Jackson, but it occurred after the
peace treaty had been signed. On
the sea, with the exception of Oliver
Perry’s victory in the Great Lakes,
Britain’s dominance was so complete
and its blockade so effective that
British troops were able to invade the
Chesapeake and burn the capital of
the United States.
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In January, 1815, Andrew Jackson won an improbable victory over a British
army twice the size of the assorted American forces, which included regular
army units, local New Orleans militia, Tennessee and Kentucky frontiersmen,
a group of pirates commanded by the legendary Jean Lafitte, and a group of
former Haitian slaves fighting as free men of color.
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The Campaigns Against Northern
and Southern Indians
American efforts to capture Canada failed
due to:
New England opposition;
the strength of the British-Indian forces; and
the resistance of Canadians.
The Americans won the Battle of the
Thames, at which Tecumseh was killed.
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Seeing History “A Scene on the Frontiers as Practiced by the
‘Humane’ British and their ‘Worthy’ Allies.”
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The Hartford Convention
Continued opposition from New England
led to the Hartford Convention.
Federalists demanded redress of grievances
though they dropped talk of secession.
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The Treaty of Ghent
The Treaty of Ghent ended the war without
addressing the major grievances, but the
British did agree to evacuate the western
forts.
Andrew Jackson’s victory at New Orleans
saved American pride.
The war also ended lingering feelings of
American colonial dependency.
The Indians were the only clear losers.
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Part Eight
Defining the Boundaries
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Another Westward Surge
Map: Spread of Settlement: Westward Surge, 1800-1820
Peace brought widespread Indian removal that opened
lands and enabled Americans to resume their westward
migration.
Northern migrants traveled the Genesee Turnpike.
Middle States settlers went west on the PhiladelphiaPittsburgh Turnpike and the National Road.
The Wilderness and Federal Roads were southern
migration routes.
Chart: Western Land Sales
The Old Northwest shared New England values.
The Old Southwest was based on plantation slavery.
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MAP 9.5 Spread of Settlement:
Westward Surge, 1800–1820
Within a period of twenty years,
a quarter of the nation’s
population had moved west of
the Appalachian Mountains. The
westward surge was a dynamic
source of American optimism.
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FIGURE 9.2 Western Land Sales Surges in western land sales reflect surges in
westward expansion. Western land sales following the War of 1812 reached an
unprecedented 3.5 million acres, but that was small in comparison with what was to
come in the 1830s and 1850s. Not all land sales reflected actual settlement,
however, and speculation in western lands was rampant. Collapse of the postwar
speculative boom contributed to the Panic of 1819, and the abrupt end to the boom
of the 1830s led to the Panic of 1837.
SOURCE: Robert Riegel and Robert Athearn, American Moves West (New York: Holt Rinehart 1964)
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The hopes of every westward migrant are exemplified in this series of four
illustrations imagining inevitable progress from pioneer cabin to prosperous farm.
The illustrations, “The Pioneer Settler and His Progress,” appeared in a booster
history advertising land in western New York.
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The Election of 1816 and the Era of
Good Feelings
James Monroe presided over the post-war
“era of good feelings.”
Monroe had no opponent in 1820.
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The American System
Monroe brought former Federalists into his
cabinet.
Madison and Monroe broke with Jefferson’s
agrarianism and embraced the Federalist program
for economic development
The American System included:
The establishment of a national bank
A tax on imported goods to protect American
manufacturers
A national system of roads and canals
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The Diplomacy of John Quincy
Adams
Map: John Quincy Adams’s Border Treaties
Secretary of State John Quincy Adams laid the
foundation for continued expansion. Two treaties with
Britain established a demilitarized Canadian border
and provided for the joint occupation of Oregon.
The Adams-Onis Treaty turned over Florida to the
United States and relinquished claims to Louisiana.
Adams defined the response of the United States to
emerging nations in the Western Hemisphere by
designing the Monroe Doctrine.
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MAP 9.6 John Quincy Adams’s Border Treaties John Quincy Adams, secretary of state in
the Monroe administration (1817–25), solidified the nation’s boundaries in several treaties
with Britain and Spain. The Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1817 and the Conventions of 1818 and
1824 settled the northern boundary with Canada and the terms of a joint occupancy of
Oregon. The Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819 added Florida to the United States and settled the
disputed border between the American Louisiana Territory and Spanish possessions in the
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West.
The Panic of 1819
A land boom was financed by speculative buying
and easy credit.
The Panic of 1819 was triggered by the Second
Bank of the United States foreclosing on loans
that led to six years of depression.
The Panic of 1819 hurt urban workers suffering
from the decline in trade and manufacturing
failures.
Manufacturers pressed for higher protective
tariffs, angering Southerners.
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The Missouri Compromise
Map: The Missouri Compromise
Effort to admit Missouri into the Union as a slave state
created a crisis.
Northerners opposed the creation of new slave states because
it would tip the balance between slave and free states.
Southerners sought to expand slavery and were concerned
that Congress would even consider the matter.
Henry Clay forged a compromise that maintained the balance
between free and slave states.
Maine was admitted as a free slave state and slavery was
barred north of Missouri’s southern boundary.
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MAP 9.7 The Missouri Compromise Before the Missouri Compromise of 1820, the Ohio
River was the dividing line between the free states of the Old Northwest and the
slaveholding states of the Old Southwest. The compromise stipulated that Missouri would
enter the Union as a slave state (balanced by Maine, a free state), but slavery would be
prohibited in the Louisiana Territory north of 36° 30’ (Missouri’s southern boundary). This
awkward compromise lasted until 1846, when the Mexican-American War reopened the
issue of the expansion of slavery.
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Part Nine
Conclusion
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