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Organization and Regulation of Body Systems Tissues, Organs and Nervous, Endocrine and Reproductive Systems 4 Types of Tissues 1. Connective : connects and supports 2. Epithelial : protects 3. Muscular : moves the body 4. Nervous : communicates Connective Tissue • Most abundant and diverse tissue in the body • Cells are loosely packed scattered in an extracellular matrix • Matrix is collagen and/or elastin fibers in a polysaccharide ground substance Connective Tissues begins as a fibroblast then becomes specialized Loosely packed cell, defined by the extracellular matrix 1. Loose connective tissue supports epithelium and internal organs. Allows expansion of arteries, lungs, bladder 2. Adipose stores Fat, it has no extra cellular matrix Energy, Insulation, Protection 3. Fibrous elongated cells (fibers) Examples are ligaments join bone to bone tendons muscle to bone 4. Structural: includes cartilage and bone ) Examples are cartilage and bone Bone is ossified cartilage Fibrous Connective Tissue • Are elongated and contain different amounts of collagen, and elastin proteins • Collagen fibers are strong, and flexible but little recoil • Elastin fibers are strong but recoil (spring back) cartilage on knobby end of a long bone Supportive Connective Tissue includes Cartilage and Bone 4. Cartilage (chondro) 5. Bone (Osteo) • Cartilage is a solid but pliable intercellular material contains collagen and elastin protein compact bone tissue spaces in spongy bone tissue • Bone is a ossified or calcified connective tissue made of collagen protein embedded with minerals. Stores Ca and Phosphorus in collagen matrix. Bone has most rigid matrix Inorganic salts are deposited around protein fibers Osteocyte • Compact bone: makes up shaft One Osteon is a cylindrical unit with nerve and blood vessels. Cell connections are canaliculi . Osteocyte is a mature bone cell. • Spongy bone: makes up the ends of long bones. Red bone marrow found in S.B. Where blood cells are made. Where calcium recycling occurs. 5. Fluid Connective tissue: Blood and Lymph Blood includes 3 types of cells floating in fluid called plasma • Classified as a connective tissue because blood cells arise in bone • Transports nutrients, waste and O2. • Formed Elements (blood cells) are dispersed in a fluid medium called plasma • Erythrocytes: RBC, Transport O2, and CO2 don’t have nuclei are biconcave, most abundant, • Leukocytes: WBC, nave nucleus, are translucent, fight infection. Many types with specific functions. Most diverse: • Thrombocytes: platelets are responsible for blood clotting LYMPH the 2nd fluid connective tissue • Clear, watery, derived from tissue fluid. • Carries WBC • Picks up tissue fluid, cleans it in lymph vessels returns it to cardiovascular system. • Lymph travels in Lymph vessels just as blood travels in blood vessels Epithelial Tissue • Lines the body’s surface, cavities, ducts, and tubes • simple squamous epithelium basement membrane connective tissue One free surface faces a body fluid or the environment Simple Epithelium • Consists of a single layer of cells • Lines body ducts, cavities, and tubes • Cell shapes Squamous Good for linings Cuboidal often glandular Columnar also glandular Muscle (Myo) Tissue • Composed of cells called fibers that contract when stimulated • Fiber cells are filled with 2 protein filaments (actin and myosin) Three Types of Muscle • Skeletal muscle • Smooth muscle • Cardiac muscle Skeletal Muscle • muscles attached to bones by tendons • Striations are the sarcomeres; use actin and myosin proteins • Voluntary, striated, not branched • Cell fibers are multinucleated Cardiac Muscle • Present only in the wall of heart Not in blood vessels • Cells are striated and branching • Ends of cells are joined by communication junctions called intercalated disks (adhesion and gap junctions) • Involuntary contractions pump blood and lead to heart beat • Each cell has one nucleus Smooth Muscle • In walls of many internal organs, tubes and some blood vessels , digestive system, reproductive, bladder, visceral organs • Cells have spindle shape and are not striated and taper at the ends. • Have peristaltic contractions • Involuntary contractions Nervous Tissue • Detects stimuli, integrates information, and relays commands for response (communication) • Consists of 2 types of cells: 1. excitable neurons 2. neuroglial cells: support and insulate neuron, speed up rates of conduction. Swann Cell forms the myelin sheath of the neuron. What would happen to rates of conduction should they disintegrate? Neurons • This is the Excitable cells, fundamental to nervous sys • 3 parts are dendrites, cell body and axon. Dendrite sense the stimulation. Sends message to the axon. It contains cell body and nucleus. Axon conducts/transmits the electrical impulse . Schwann cells are neuroglia. They insulate and speed up conduction. Synapse: accumulates the neurotransmitter communicates with next neuron, muscle or gland cell. Uses neurotransmitter to activate and effector. The accumulation of neurotransmitters involves calcium. • Arrival of the impulse at the neuron endings triggers events that stimulate or inhibit adjacent neurons or other cells Activation of a Nerve • Resting (Polarize) -70mV Not stimulated • Action (Depolarize) +40 mV stimulated voltage • Returing to Rest (Repolarized) returning to -70mV Action potential • Note Na and K ions involve Time (milliseconds) Dendrite, Cell Body Axon and Synapse. • Dendrites are extentions of plasmamembrane surrounding the cell body. It is the sensing end. Sends message to the axon • Cell Body contains cell body and nucleus. • *Grey matter in the brain is composed of un-myelinated cell bodies. • Axon conducts impulses towards the synapse. Undergoes electrical changes. • Bundles of Axons in brain and spine form nerves . • White matter is myelinated axons • Synapse, communicates with next neuron, muscle or gland cell. Uses neurotransmitter to activate and effector. The accumulation of neurotransmitters involves calcium. Activities at the synapse (Space between fibers of adjacent neurons) Neurotransmitters are chemicals which relay, amplify and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell When the impulse synaptic gap reaches the synapse, the axon releases neurotransmitters into the synapse (e.g. Acetylcholine). Neurotransmitter binds to specific receptor sites on the dendrite The impulse is passed to the next neuron Only produced in the axons Receptors only in dendrites Presynaptic neuron Postsynaptic neuron Some Neurotransmitters and Drugs that affect them 5 main neurotransmitter systems… 1. Adrenaline (epinephrine) system, the dopamine system, the serotonin system and the Acetylcholine system largely stimulatory 2. GABA is inhibitory neurotransmitter 3. Dopamine: Critical role in the reward system , makes you feel good. (also implicated in Parkinson's and schizophrenia) Why are Nicotine, Cocaine, and Heroin Addictive Nicotine causes neurons to release dopamine Cocaine blocks the reentering of dopamine back into the presynaptic neuron, leaving these neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap longer Heroin works by increasing the release of GABA neurotransmitters, which in time increase the release of dopamine 4. Serotonin: Regulation of mood, sleep/wake cycles, and body temperature. Low levels in the synapse correlate with depression Prozac is used as an antidepressant: serotonin reuptake inhibitor, helps to retain high levels of serotonin in the synapse 5. Acetylcholine (Ach) stimulates muscles. Glands • Secretory organs that are derived from epithelium • Exocrine glands secrete products onto free epithelial surface via ducts or tubes • Endocrine glands are ductless and release hormones into the fluid that surrounds the gland . They transport substances like hormones from source to target cell via blood. Organs • An organ is a group of tissues organized to perform a task or tasks • Heart is an organ that pumps blood through body • Heart is an organ because it consists of muscle tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue, and epithelial tissue Tissue and Organ Forerunners Found in the Gastrula During human development the human embryo develops 3 germ layers that have a specific destiny • Ectoderm: Gives rise to the skin’s outer layer and to the nervous system’s tissues • Mesoderm: Source of muscles, bones, and most of the circulatory, reproductive, and urinary systems • Endoderm: Gives rise to linings of the digestive tract and organs derived from it Organ Systems The organs within the system interact physically, chemically, or both to perform a common task What Do Organ Systems Do? • Maintain stable internal conditions • Acquire nutrients and raw materials; dispose of wastes • Protect the body against injury and attack • Allow reproduction and nourishment of young Major Organ Systems You must know the function of each organ system the main organs in each system, and what each does. • Integumentary • Circulatory • Muscular • Lymphatic • Skeletal • Respiratory • Nervous • Urinary • Endocrine • Reproductive • Digestive 4.8 Organ systems What are the organ systems of the human body? 4.8 Organ systems What are the organ systems of the human body? Integumentary System: Human Skin 1st line of defense • Body’s largest organ • Two layers – Upper epidermis – Lower dermis • Lies atop a layer of hypodermis Nervous System includes nerve in the peripheral PNS) and central (CNS) nervous system. Sensory and motor(responding) neurons are in the PNS and interneuronsare in the CNS. CNS is the brain and spine. Communication between neurons is by neurotransmitters 1-Sensory Neurons(PNS) Nerve: BUNDLE OF NEURONS ENCLOSED IN A MEMBRANE Takes impulses from sensory receptor to CNS: afferent branch 2-Interneurons Transmit impulses between the sensory and motor neurons (found only in CNS) only in brain and spine 3- Motor Neurons (PNS) Take impulses from the CNS to an effector (i.e. gland or muscle fiber) : efferent branch Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) has nerves brain central nervous system brain all sensory and motor neurons of somatic and autonomic nerves spinal cord spinal cord axons of motor nerves sensory nerves Two Divisions: Somatic division Serves the skin, skeletal cranial nerves somatic division lumbar nerves (five pairs) sacral nerves (five pairs) muscles and tendons Autonomic division Regulates the activity of involuntary muscles (cardiac and smooth) and glands Sympathetic is Fight or Fight: Increases cardiac and respiratory output, decreases digestive and reproductive output. Parasympathetic is Rest and Repose. Opposite of Sympathetic cervical nerves (eight pairs) thoracic nerves (twelve pairs) ulnar nerve autonomic division coccygeal nerves (one pair) sciatic nerve parasympathetic nerves sympathetic nerves The Brain (CNS) (1) Cerebellum : involved in coordination, balance (2) Pons and Medulla in Brain stem regulates heart rate and breathing rates (3) Cerebrum (you have 2): Thinking and reasoning (4) Thalamus: bridges the cerebrum with lower parts of the brain (3) Thinking part of the brain Largest portion of the brain in humans 4. Bridge between cerebrum and lower parts of the brain Sensory and motor activities of face and head (2) Breathing (1) Coordinates balance, eyes, Endocrine Glands Regulate Sexual and Non-Sexual Functions Hormones secreted by gland travel through blood to target site: Hypothalamus : (Master gland). Gets commands from Nervous system Regulates the Pituitary Pituitary gland regulates other glands: ACTH: adrenal HGH: bone length TSH: thyroid PRL: milk production FSH & LH: sexual function Oxytocin: uterine contractions ADH: kidney, slows water loss The hypothalamus and pituitary connections KIDNEY FUNCTION DEPENDS ON NEPHRONS ADH secreted by the pituitary gland binds to the kidney collecting duct Upper Figure: No ADH, water is lost from the body ( large volume of urine. Lower figure: ADH IS ANTIDIURETIC WILL DECREASE URINE VOLUME ADH binds to the collecting ducts when the body needs to conserve water . Water returns to the body. Helps body conserve water. Examples of Diuretics (make you urinate frequently) CAFFEINE ALCOHOL Regulation of Blood Calcium by Calcitonin and Parathyroxin Study this Figure to understand Ca homeostasis High Ca in blood: Thyroid releases Calcitonin a)Ca is deposited in bones, b)decrease Ca uptake in intestine c) decrease Ca reabsorption from kidney Low Ca in blood: Parathyroid releases PTH a) increase Ca release from bone b) increase Ca uptake in intestine c) Increase Ca reabsorption from urine Calcium metabolism Regulated by three hormones Calcitonin increases bone density by removing Ca from Blood Parathyroid decreases bone density by reabsorbing bone Calcitrol is the hormone precursor to Vitamin D. increases the absorption of calcium and phosphates from the intestinal tract and inhibits the release of calcitonin. Osteoporosis:decrease in bone density. Can be caused by diet of by hormone levels Fig. 31-8, p.528 Thyroid abnormalities • Simple goiter – thyroid enlarges due to lack of iodine in the diet • Hypothyroidism – low blood levels of thyroid hormones A. B. • Congenital hypothyroidism: thyroid does not develop properly and is characterized in a short, stocky person that may be mentally retarded Hypothyroidism in adults characterized by lethargy, weight gain, loss of hair, cold intolerant and thick, puffy skin Hyperthyroidism – excess thyroid hormones in the blood in adults characterized by irritable, hyperactive, insomnia, weight loss. Can be caused by thyroid tumor A. Exophthalimic goiter: such as seen in Graves' disease and is characterized by enlargement of the thyroid gland, protrusion of the eyes, Regulation of blood sugar by Insulin and Glucagon. They are antagonistic. Both are made by the pancreas. Insulin: decreases sugar in blood a)stores it as glycogen in the liver, b)sends it to muscles to make ATP c) stores it as fat in adipose tissue Glucagon: increases sugar in blood a) breaks down glycogen b) breaks down fats 15.5 Pancreas Health focus: What is diabetes? Inability to control blood glucose levels (normal is 100 mg/dL). Insulin deficiency is a component in the problem and in the treatment. Person eats but sugar can not get in. 18 million people in the US have diabetes There are two types: Type 1 genetic predisposition Type 2 diet related “Adult onset” General symptoms: Frequent urination Unusual hunger and/or thirst Unexplained change in weight Blurred vision Sores that heal slowly or not at all Excessive fatigue Long-term effects are blindness, loss of limbs, nerve deterioration, kidney and cardiovascular disease Animal lifecycle Meiosis produces gametes (1N): sperm, eggs) are formed Fertilization unites sperm and egg- zygote (2n) Mitosis: Zygote divides produces multicellular organism Major Organs of Female Reproductive System: Ovaries: contain follicles that become eggs Oviduct (fallopian tube): site of fertilization Uterus: site of embryo implantation Cervix and Vagina Hormones : Estrogen and Progesterone (ovary) FSH & LH (pituitary) Estrogen and Progesterone (ovary) prepare the uterus for pregnancy FSH & LH (pituitary) FSH stimulates egg maturation LH: stimulates ovulation Male Reproductive System Produces sperm and delivers sperm to female reproductive tract Testes: make sperm Epididymis: sperm will mature Vas Deferens: conduit that transports sperm. Three accessory gland: makes ejaculatory fluid (fructose, alkaline solution (to neutralize) semen (prevents friction) Hormones: Testosterone (testes), FSH, LH (pituitary) Testosterone (testes), stimulates sperm production FSH, LH (pituitary): stimulates the production of testosterone Post Fertilization Cleavage: rapid mitotic division without growth Polarity: formation of 2 poles Animal (rapidly dividing) and vegetal (slowly dividing) Blastulation: ball of cells hollows out Gastrulation: forms 3 germ layers Implantation: of blastula into uterus Pre-embryonic and embryonic development 17.2 Pre-embryonic and embryonic development 3 germ layers for in the Gastrula