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Organization and Regulation of Human Body Systems Digestion, Excretion, Skeletal Muscular Major Components: Accessory Organs: MOUTH: chewing and 1st site to digest starch) PHARYNX SALIVARY GLANDS (makes amylase) ESOPHAGUS STOMACH (churning and 1st chemical digestion of protein) SMALL INTESTINE (main site of nutrient absorption LARGE INTESTINE (COLON) (removes waste and retrieves water) LIVER (makes bile, detoxes drugs and other substances) GALLBLADDER (stores bile for SI) PANCREAS (make Insulin and Glucagon Makes enzymes for SI) RECTUM (storage) ANUS Fig. 36-5, p.614 Table 36.4 Summary of the Human Digestive System Mouth Start of digestive system, where food is chewed, (oral cavity) and moistened; starch digestion begins Pharynx Entrance to digestive and respiratory tract tubes Esophagus Muscular tube, moistened by saliva, that moves food from pharynx to stomach Stomach Stretchable sac where food mixes with gastric fluid and protein digestion starts; stores food taken in faster than can be processed; its fluid kills many microbes Small intestine Receives secretions from liver, gallbladder, pancreas; digests most nutrients; delivers unabsorbed material to colon Colon (large intestine) Concentrates and stores undigested matter (by absorbing mineral ions and water) Rectum Distension triggers expulsion of feces Anus Terminal opening of digestive system Table 36-4, p.628 8.3 The stomach and small intestine What are the major digestive enzymes? Know the role of and source of each of the following: bile amylase, maltase, pepsin, trypsin,nuicleases, lipase. 8.3 The stomach and small intestine How are nutrients digested and transported out of the small intestine? Proteases: pepsin and trypsin Sucrase, Lactase, Cellulase, Chitinase, Lipases, Nucleases What are 2 steps in the digestion of lipids? SMOOTH MUSCLES LINE THE DIGESTIVE TRACT AND USE WAVELIKE CONTRACTIONS Called “PERISTALSIS” Fig. 36-8c, p.617 MILK, CHEESE, YOGURT : Two servings/day (three/day for teenagers or pregnant, lactating, post-menopausal women) ADDED FATS AND SIMPLE SUGARS. Other foods have plenty. Restrict intake of butter, salad dressings, sweets, soft drinks, snacks VEGETABLES: (2.5 CUPS /DAY FRUITS : Two to four servings/day (2 CUPS/DAY) LEAN MEAT, POULTRY, FISH, LEGUMES, EGGS: Two to three servings/day (serving size is a deck of cards) GRAIN PRODUCTS (BREADS, CEREALS, PASTA) : Six to eleven servings/day 6 oz, serving size is ½ cup DIETARY REQUIREMENTS: You need to get the following in your diet.. Fat Soluble Vitamins: D, E, A, K Water Soluble Vitamins: (Several B, Folate, Biotin, C) Minerals (12): Ca, Cl, Co, F, I, Fe, Mg, Na, P, K, S, Zn) Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic Acids One needs to consume between 1500 and 2500 calories Daily depending on gender, height, activity. FOUR ORGANS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM KIDNEYS Constantly filters water and all solutes except proteins from blood; reclaims water and solutes as the body requires and excretes the remainder, as urine One million nephrons are in each kidney. URETER (one of a pair) Channel for urine flow from a kidney to the urinary bladder BLADDER: Stretchable container for temporarily Storage of urine URETHRA: Channel for urine flow between the urinary bladder and body surface adren al gland SUMMARY OF EXCRETORY OR URINARY SYSTEM How do the kidneys maintain homeostasis? Excrete wastes: REMOVES AMMONIUM WASTE Urea, creatinine and uric acid Water-salt balance of blood: OSMO & THERMAL REGULATION Helps regulate blood volume and pressure Acid-base balance of blood: BLOOD CHEMISTRY Helps regulate pH Assistance to other systems Endocrine, cardiovascular, skeletal, muscular nervous and digestive Fig. 37-6, p.635 How does the nephron form urine? NEPHRON IS FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF THE KIDNEY Four Steps to Processing Blood 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bowman’s Capsule Filtration of Blood happens in Proximal tubule Reabsorption, returns wanted solutes and water to blood Distal tubule, Secretion moves solutes from blood directly into the Nephron Collecting duct Hormone ADH binds to the if water must be conserved in the body. Unwanted water, urea, salts, NH4 and creatine are urinated from the body Endocrine Glands Regulate Sexual and Non-Sexual Functions Hormones secreted by gland travel to target site: Hypothalamus : GnRH regulates the Pituitary Pituitary gland regulates other glands: ACTH: adrenal HGH: bone length TSH: thyroid PRL: milk production FSH & LH: sexual function Oxytocin: uterine contractions ADH: kidney, water loss 15.2 Hypothalamus and pituitary gland The hypothalamus and pituitary KIDNEY FUNCTION DEPENDS ON NEPHRONS ADH IS ANTIDIURETIC WILL DECREASE URINE VOLUME CAFFEINE ALCOHOL Skeletal system 1. Supports the body 2. Protects the soft body parts 3. Produces blood cells (red bone marrow) 4. Stores minerals (calcium and phosphate) and fat 5. Allows for movement by attaching muscles Skeletal System Uses 2 types of Supportive Connective Tissue Cartilage and Bone. Ends of bones are coated in cartilage, cartilagenous disc are found in between 2 vertibrae, ears and nose are made of cartilage. cartilage on knobby end of a long bone 4. Cartilage (chondro) 5. Bone (Osteo) • Cartilage is a solid but pliable intercellular material contains collagen and elastin protein compact bone tissue spaces in spongy bone tissue • Bone is ossified or calcified connective tissue made of collagen protein embedded with minerals. Stores Ca and Phosphorus in collagen matrix. Bone has most rigid matrix Inorganic salts are deposited around protein fibers Osteocyte • Compact bone: makes up shaft One Osteon is a cylindrical unit with nerve and blood vessels. Cell connections are canaliculi . Osteocyte is a bone cell. • Spongy bone: makes up the ends of long bones. Blood cells are made in red bone marrow found in S.B. Calcium recycling is done in spongy bone. 6. Blood is one type of Fluid CT Includes 3 types of cells floating in fluid called plasma • Classified as a connective tissue because blood cells arise in bone • Transports nutrients, waste and O2. • Formed Elements (Red cells, white cells, and platelets) are dispersed in a fluid medium called plasma Formed Elements • Erythrocytes: RBC, Transport O2, and CO2 don’t have nuclei are biconcave, most abundant, • Leukocytes: WBC, nave nucleus, are translucent, fight infection. Many types with specific functions. Most diverse: ) • Thrombocytes: platelets are responsible for blood clotting Muscle Tissue (Myo) • Composed of cells called fibers that contract when stimulated • Fiber cells are filled with protein filaments (actin and myosin) Three Types of Muscle • Skeletal muscle • Smooth muscle • Cardiac muscle Skeletal Muscle • muscles attached to bones by tendons • Striations are the sarcomeres; use actin and myosin proteins • Voluntary, striated, not branched • Cell fibers are multinucleated • Osteoporosis – bones are weakened due to a decreased bone density. Factors affecting bone growth Growth hormone (GH) – stimulates general bone growth and the epiphyseal plates Sex hormones – increases growth during adolescence Vitamin D – converted to a hormone to allow calcium absorption in the intestine Calcium in Blood affects bone growth through hormones: Parathyroid hormone (PTH) – increases blood calcium by accelerating bone recycling Calcitonin – decreases blood calcium The Muscular System smallest working unit is the sarcomere Sarcomere has 2 types of protein Thick band made Myosin Thin band made of actin 11.2 Bone growth, remodeling and repair What are the important cells in bone growth, remodeling and repair? • Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells. Happens when body stores Calcium, Stimulated by Calcitonin. Increases bone density • Osteocytes – mature bone cells that maintain bone structure derived from osteoblasts • Osteoclasts – bone-absorbing cells. Happens when body needs Calcium, Stimulated by parathyroxin. Decreases bone density • Chondroytes – cartilage-forming cells Bone Marrow Yellow marrow Fills the cavities of adult long bones Is largely fat Red marrow Occurs in spongy bone of some bones Produces blood cells Long Bone Formation Embryo: cartilage model of future bone in embryo Fetus: blood vessel invades model; osteoblasts start producing bone tissue; marrow cavity forms Newborn: remodeling and growth continue; secondary bone-forming centers appear at knobby ends of bone Adult: mature bone Bone Remodeling In adults, bone building and bone breakdown continue constantly involves Calcium storage Osteoblasts forms bone, to remove Calcium from blood. Increases bone density. Calcitonin hormone action, made by the thyroid gland Osteoclasts degrades bone to release calcium and return it to blood. Decreases bone density. Parathyroid hormone action made by parathyroid gland Remodeling adjusts bone strength and helps maintain blood calcium levels Bone Density Exercise can increase bone density Osteoporosis is a decrease in bone density May occur when the action of osteoclasts outpaces that of osteoblasts May also occur as a result of inability to absorb calcium Joints Arthritis is a Joint Disorder Areas of contact or near contact between bones Fibrous joints Short connecting fibers join bones Synovial joints Move freely; ligaments connect bones Cartilaginous joints Straps of cartilage allow slight movement Skeletal Muscle Bundles of striped muscle cells Attaches to bone Often work in opposition biceps Joints are areas of contact or near contact between bones Arthritis is a joint disorder triceps Skeletal Muscle Structure A muscle is made up of muscle cells A muscle fiber is a single muscle cell Each fiber contains many myofibrils myofibril Sarcomere is the unit of contraction of a skeletal muscle A myofibril is made up of thick and thin filaments arranged in sarcomeres. Thick filament is myosin, the thin filament is actin protein. sarcomere sarcomere Z band sarcomere sarcomere Z band Z band Muscle Microfilaments Thin filaments Like two strands of pearls twisted together Pearls are actin Other proteins in grooves in filament Thick filaments • Composed of myosin • Each myosin molecule has tail and a double head Sliding-Filament Model Sarcomere shortens because the actin filaments are pulled inward, toward the sarcomere center Sliding-Filament Model for muscle contraction Myosin heads attach to actin filaments Myosin heads tilt toward the sarcomere center, pulling actin with them Actin filaments moves while myosin filaments are stationary Muscles need a source of Energy ( ATP) and Calcium Nervous System Controls Contraction Signals from nervous system travel along spinal cord, down a motor neuron Neuron stimulates the release of the Acetylcholine, this activates a muscle contraction Endings of motor neuron synapse on a muscle cell at a neuromuscular junction 12.3 Whole muscle contraction 3 Pathways for Acquiring ATP for muscle contraction • Limited amounts of ATP are stored in muscle fibers • Creatine phosphate pathway (CP) – fastest way to acquire ATP but only sustains a cell for seconds; builds up when a muscle is resting • Fermentation – fast-acting but results in lactate build up • Cellular respiration (aerobic) – not an immediate source of ATP but the best long term source