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Development Issues in Exercise Science Introduction Developmental Issues in Exercise Science Physical Responses on Exercise Conditioning in Adolescence Developmental Continuum Prenatal – Embryo – Fetus Neonate Infancy – Early – Later 2-8 weeks 8weeks-birth birth-4 weeks birth-12 months 12-24 months Childhood – Toddlerhood 24-36 months – Early Childhood (Preschool) 3-5 yrs – Late Childhood 6-10 yrs Adolescence – Pre-pubescence Females Males 10-12 yrs 11-13 yrs – Post-pubescence Females Males 12-18 yrs 14-20 yrs Adulthood – Young adulthood – Middle adulthood – Older adulthood Young old Middle old Frail old 18-40 yrs 40-60 yrs 60-70 yrs 70-80 yrs 80+ yrs Motor Development Described as “Progressive change in Motor behavior throughout the life cycle” 1. Physical Changes 2. Biomechanical Changes Developmental Changes in Youth Fitness Female 9-11, Male 11-13 children’s bodies begin to changes due to hormonal change with puberty These change influence by health-related physical fitness – – – – Muscular strength/endurance Aerobic endurance Joint flexibility Body composition Field based research – Know about the motor performance of youth is derived – Conducted in school, play grounds… – Realistic motor performance situations – More relaxed atmosphere than a formal Lab Muscular Strength and Endurance Key components of Health-related physical fitness. Measurement: bent knee sits-ups, hand grip… Pre-pubertal growth spurt, girls and boys follow a same pattern until male growth spurt. Obvious gender differences are muscle mass increases of male Aerobic Endurance Can use treadmill test to measure maximal; oxygen capacity in children Lab tests v.s. Field tests Female improve their running time until 14 yrs of age Male show improvement across age groups until age 16 Can be due to increase muscle mass in male and limit physical activity as acquisition of a driver license in female Performance-Related Fitness Components Exercise Scientist’s Interests Biomechanist: an increase length accompanying growing bodies Physiologist:an increase in body fat on the performance of a prepubescent girl Joint Flexibility Sit and reach is the test most use in determine flexibility Generally increases until about age of 16 A reduction in joint flexibility may occur until the muscles and tendons growth Body Composition From age of 10 to 15 yrs, females experience an increase in body fat Male undergo an increase in muscle mass and consistent body fat percentage May throughout adolescence and subject to lifestyle behaviors as physical activity levels and nutritional patterns Can help researchers establishing weight reduction strategies and so on. Youth Sports American children in 1999 are 13 pound heavier than same age group were in 1983 10 yrs old required longer time to run a mile in 1989 than those measure in 1980 Modern children may be fatter, less fit, more susceptible to chronic disease School system tried to solve budgetary problem by decreasing physical education classes of eliminating them entirely After school youth sport program like community soccer and Little League baseball Those program can serve to develop skills for enjoyable fitness activities Considerations of Athletic Training Training principles and injury susceptibility and prevention Speed While pre-puberty, boy’s and girl’s are similar in their average running velocity and pattern of speed improvement While pubertal change begin, male continue to improve in speed and female begin to plateau Muscular strength is a major component of running speeds in male Girl tends to plateau in speed at about age 11 and may due to puberty-related gain in body fat Speed also largely related to genetically determined muscle fibers type of young athletes, but improved with training Muscular Power The result of a forceful muscular contraction performed rapidly Most adolescents participate require muscular power to successful skill performance Performance patterns are similar to the patterns observed in other fitness characteristics Increases in muscle mass in male and body fat in female are major contributors to the performance patterns following the onset of puberty Muscle power is highly individual’s genetically determined muscle fiber characteristics Scientist may help determine an athlete’s potential in a power-oriented skills Measurement of muscular power have a skill component that may reduce their validity Reaction Time Time interval from the onset of a signal to the initiation of the appropriate movement response Ability to process movement-oriented information rapidly Can improve their reaction time throughout adolescence and then begin to plateau Factors Influence Reaction Time The familiarity of the skill to be performed The opportunity to practice the required skill The number of movement choices from which the performer must select Intensive Training and Health Considerations for the Young Athletes High-intensity Training Considerations Children are not miniature adults Young athletes differ from adult athletes – Cognitively: conceptualize and strategize in sport situations – Psychologically: motivated differ from parents and coach – Physically: – Physiologically: immature bodies response to intense training Degree o f Skeletal Maturity Bone growth take place at the epiphyseal growth plate Excessive weight bearing or shearing forces can result in fractures of the plate A reduction in blood flow to the growing bone and subsequent premature cessation of bone growth Growth plate remain a concern for prepubescent and adolescent population until the ages of 18 to 20 yrs. Epiphyseal Growth Plate Damage Overuse injuries due to the repeated application of many small stresses that by themselves create no apparent injury as stress fractures and tendinitis May have originated before an athlete reached puberty but cumulative effect may reveal until adolescence Thermoregulation in the Young Athlete Children loss heat rapidly, due to small body surface area to mass ratio Children tend to perspire less than adults When training in warm or hot temp. – – – – – Training lighter than normal Session should shorter than normal Frequent rest in the shade Drink fluids before thirst levels Training time and intensity should be increased gradually until athlete become acclimated When training in cool or cold temp. – Out of water when not training or competing – When water below 22℃, stay in the water a maximum of 15 min Exercise scientist need to educate about developmental differences in thermoregulation and take step to prevent the athlete’s health Nutritional Concerns Growing bodies of young athletes require a healthy diet Excessive caloric restrictions can result in loss of bone mineral density Young athletes have either intrinsic or extrinsic pressure to obtain a leaner body build may attempt rapid weight loss by unhealthy behaviors Yo-Yo dieting as gain weight after meet and loss before meet Resistance Training with the Prepubescent Athlete Two concerns 1. Potential damage of epiphyseal plate as a result of excessive weight bearing on growing bones 2. Prepubescent resistance training is its efficacy Safety Guidelines for Prepubescent Strength Training Program Neural Efficacy Levels of testosterone are need for muscle hypertrophy to occur and then strength increase Short-term weight training in prepubescents reveal a strength gains occur without changes in muscle size without hypertrophy may concern neural efficiency Adult Development and Aging Aging is the accumulation of changes in a person over time – Juvenile [via infancy, childhood, preadolescence, adolescence (teenager)]: 0-19 – Early adulthood: 20-39 – Adulthood (20 to 40 yrs) – Middle adulthood (40-60 yrs) – Old adulthood (60+ yrs) The Demographics of Aging Many factor contributing to this trend toward a greater proportion of older adults – – – – Health care Proper diet Physical activity Smoking The Physiology of Aging Aging in humans refers to a multidimensional process of physical, psychological, and social change Understanding the effects aging has on specific physiologic systems assists the professional working upon principles of – Task specificity – Interindividual / intraindividual variability Nervous and muscular systems are of particular importance when motor performance of older adults is examined Muscle in Aging With increasing age – – – – Slow-twitch fiber increase Fast-twitch fiber decrease May represent a model of disuse Total muscle size and muscle strength decrease Can be test by measuring tape and MRI – The relationship between muscle size and muscle strength is not perfect in older adults The Central Nervous System Some evidence that the number of brain cells decreases with advancing age The numbers of connections or synapses between brain neurons decrease with age Motor behavior in older adult may be altered because of deteriorated neural pathways Aging brain also susceptible to the reception of an inadequate amount of oxygen, hypoxia – The nerve cells’ function and longevity are affected Reaction time and Aging The ability of react quickly to certain situations may diminished RT demonstrate a tendency to ward slowing with age. Age-related structural changes in the brain are inevitable, older adults can moderate the influence of aging on brain function – Physical activity Maintenance or enhancement RT ability in older adult may stem from an increase in cerebral blood flow and increase oxygen to brain cell Balance Involves many variables (vestibular system, somatosnesory system…)that interacts to control an individual’s posture and prevent falls Seniors may use different methods to recover from loss of balance (older adults tend to activate muscle groups of the lower body of a different pattern) Compensatory mechanism to prevent falls – Environmental considerations Firm surface underfoot Improving room lighting – Muscle fitness Increasing the muscular strength of the ankle, knee, and hip Skeletal System Following skeletal maturity, age-related changes in bone characteristics are generally not noticeable until old adulthood In older adults, reduction in the water content of intervertebral discs, spinal misalignment, and loss of bone mineral density Loss of water in the discs of the spinal column, reduces their shock absorption and capacities, and discs compression may reduces the length of spinal column Osteoporosis Bone mineral production and absorption are ongoing processes When absorption becomes more accelerated than what is accounted for by the normal aging, it is known as osteoporosis Two major concerns become apparent – Brittle bones may experience fractures form within Usual seen in vertebae of the spinal column – The potential for bone fractures following event minimal trauma Sensory Systems Visual system – Many changes adversely affect the quality of vision (fig.) – Functional changes Decrease in visual clarity Reduction in the constricting and dilating properties of the eye muscle Decline I n the ability to adapt to dim light settings – Improvement Surgical procedure for cataracts Increasing room illumination Wearing corrective eye wear Auditory System – Presbycusis, or age-related hearing loss, is the cumulative effect of aging on hearing. Also known as presbyacusis, it is defined as a progressive bilateral symmetrical age-related sensorineural hearing loss (fig.) – Can be result from a loss of nerve cells in the inner ear, a decreased in the flexibility of the bones and membranes of the middle ear, and the increased secretion of cerumen (earwax) – Older adults experience tinnitus, which is a constant ringing or buzzing noise in the ears Longitudinal Versus Cross-Sectional Aging research – Longitudinal research involves observation of the dame individuals for an extended duration – Cross-Sectional research might study a group with similar aged Genetics Lifetime physical activity Nutritional history General socioeconomic Medical background Intervention Strategies Compensatory techniques for offsetting these age-related declined using principles of task specificity, interindividual and intraindividual variabilities Altering environmental conditions Use medical advances Increasing muscular strength Practice postural stability task Risk Factors for Falling and Possible Intervention Strategies Possible Risk Factors Of the Older Adult Possible Intervention Strategies Decrease in muscular strength Strength training exercise Assistance device (cones, walkers, handrails) Decrease in joint flexibility Active lifestyles Stretching exercise Decrease in visual abilities Increased room lighting Reduced glare Eye glasses Surgical treatment Decrease in auditory abilities Removal of cerumen Hearing assistance devices Decrease in proprioception Firm walking surface Focused attention on task Allowance for practice of task Increased motivation Medicine Awareness of drug side effects Awareness of drug interaction side effects Adapted from Gallahue & Ozmun, 1995 Elite Motor Performance in Older Adulthood Gerontology is the scientific study of the aging process Chronologic age v.s. biologic age Motor performance in adulthood is highly variable Some older individuals may be come to frail and suffer serious health problems at a early older age Continue to excel in their performance throughout adulthood and appear to be minimally affected by the aging process