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Grammar Review
A Review of Some of the Most Important
Grammatical Terms and Concepts
The Sign
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)
said that language is a system of
signs.
The Sign, Part 2
By sign, he meant the combination of a concept and
a sound-image.
For example, the sign for “door” consists of a
connection between the sounds that make up the
word “door” (which is its sound-image) and the
concept of a door (its definition).
Parts of Speech
The signs that make up the English
language are divided into
categories based on the function of
those signs; these categories are the
parts of speech.
Parts of Speech, Part 2
Nouns name persons, places, things, or ideas.
Pronouns take the place of nouns.
Verbs show action or a state of being.
Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
Prepositions relate one object to another.
Conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses.
Interjections show excitement and emotion.
Coordination and Subordination
Of particular grammatical importance is
the difference between coordinating signs
and subordinating signs.
Coordination and Subordination,
Part 2
Coordinating Signs
1) Coordinating Conjunctions (Complete list)
and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet
2) Conjunctive Adverbs
(Sample List)
also, anyway, besides, finally, furthermore,
however, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile,
nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, still,
then, therefore
Coordination and Subordination,
Part 3
Subordinating Signs
1) Subordinating Conjunctions
(Sample List)
after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once,
since, so that, that, though, unless, until, when,
whenever, where, wherever, whether, while, why
2) Relative Pronouns
(Sample List)
that, what, which, who, whoever, whom,
whomever, whose
Clauses and Phrases
Another important grammatical
concept is the distinction
Examples of subordination:
between clauses and phrases.
1) When Bob went into town, he went to the bank.
Examples of coordination:
1) The painting was done in red, white, and black.
2) John was going to eat lunch, but he decided to go out to eat.
2) I f eel that blue is the best color to paint a house.
Clauses and Phrases, Part 2
Phrases do not have a
subject and verb that
agree.
Clauses have subjects
and verbs that agree.
If that clause expresses
a complete thought, it is
a main (or independent)
clause
If not, it is a subordinate
clause.
The Sentence
A final fundamental concept in grammar is the
concept of the sentence. Tradition dictates that
academic and formal writing be in complete
sentences, to avoid potential misunderstandings.
Requirements for a Sentence
1) A sentence must have a subject and verb that
agree.
2) A sentence must also express a complete
thought.
There are four types of sentences.
Simple sentences have one main clause.
Compound sentences have two or more main
clauses.
Complex sentences have one main clause and
one or more subordinate clauses.
Compound-complex sentences have two main
clauses and one subordinate.
Compound Sentences
There are three correct ways to join two main
clauses in a compound sentence.
An error in joining main clauses in a compound
sentence usually results in either a run on
sentence or a comma splice.
Three Correct Compound Sentences
Bill went to town, and he ate lunch at Taco Bell.
(A comma and a coordinating conjunction are
used to join the two main clauses).
Bill went to town for lunch; however, he could not
eat at Taco Bell. (Semi-colon plus conjunctive
adverb plus comma)
Bill went to town; he ate lunch at Taco Bell.
(semi-colon)
Comma Splices
A comma splice is an attempt to join two main
clauses with only a comma.
CS: Bill went to town, he ate lunch at Taco Bell.
Correct: Bill went to town; he ate lunch at Taco
Bell.
Run On Sentences
A run on sentence is an attempt to join two main
clauses with no punctuation.
RS: Bill went to town he ate lunch at Taco Bell.
Correct: Bill went to town; he ate lunch at Taco
Bell.
Complex Sentences
The punctuation in a complex sentence is
determined by two items:
– Placement of the subordinate clause in relation to
the main clause.
– Whether or not the subordinate clause is an
essential, restrictive clause.
Placement of Subordinate Clause
If the subordinate clause comes before the main
clause, it is joined to the main clause with a
comma.
Example: When Bill went to town, he ate lunch at
Taco Bell.
Restrictive Clauses
If the subordinate clause is essential (is a
restrictive clause), then no punctuation is used to
join that clause to the main clause.
If the subordinate clause is not essential (is not a
restrictive clause), then a comma is used to join
that clause to the main clause.
Examples
Restrictive
The students who
passed the test were
happy.
The coach who was a
graduate of NC State
quit his job.
Non-restrictive
The students, who
passed the test, were
happy.
The coach, who was a
graduate of NC State,
quit his job.