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Session II.3.5 Part II Quantities and Measurements Module 3 Principles of Radiation Detection and Measurement Session 5 Semiconductor Detectors 5/2003 Rev 2 IAEA Post Graduate Educational Course Radiation Protection and Safe Use of Radiation Sources II.3.5 – slide 1 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors Upon completion of this section the student will be able to explain the process and characteristics of semiconductor detectors including the concepts: 5/2003 Rev 2 N-type P-type Intrinsic/Depletion region Resolution Efficiency II.3.5 – slide 2 of 45 Semiconductor Diodes Semiconductors are typically made of silicon or germanium For portable detectors, silicon is typically used because the band gap is greater which results in less thermally generated “noise” To reduce this noise in germanium detectors it is necessary to cool the detectors using liquid nitrogen 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 3 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors Silicon forms a crystal that has a diamond shaped lattice Each silicon atom has four covalent bonds In the diagram in the next slide, each covalent bond is represented by a pair of valence band electrons 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 4 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 5/2003 Rev 2 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e II.3.5 – slide 5 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors There are two types of silicon and germanium semiconductor detectors, N-type and P-type N-type detectors have an excess of donor impurities, usually group V elements An extra electron is donated at the site of the impurity resulting in an extra negative charge 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 6 of 45 N-Type Si Containing Group V Donor Impurity e e e e e Extra Electron e e e e e e e e e e 5/2003 Rev 2 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e II.3.5 – slide 7 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors P-type detectors have an excess of acceptor impurities, usually group III elements A hole is created at the site of the acceptor impurity, this results in a positive charge at the site of the impurity 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 8 of 45 P-Type Si Containing Group III Acceptor Impurity e e e e e Positive Hole e e e e e e e e e e + e e e 5/2003 Rev 2 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e II.3.5 – slide 9 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors The sensitive volume of a diode detector is referred to as the depletion or intrinsic region This is the region of relative purity at a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material At this junction, the electrons from the n-type silicon migrate across the junction and fill the holes in the p-type silicon to create the p-n junction where there is no excess of holes or electrons 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 10 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors When a positive voltage is applied to the n-type material and negative voltage to the p-type material, the electrons are pulled further away from this region creating a much thicker depletion region The depletion region acts as the sensitive volume of the detector Ionizing radiation entering this region will create holes and excess electrons which migrate and cause an electrical pulse 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 11 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors Reverse Bias Anode (+) ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ------ Cathode (-) Intrinsic/Depletion Region 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 12 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors Diode detectors are often referred to as “PIN” detectors or diodes. “PIN” is from P-type, Intrinsic region, N-type The intrinsic region is several hundred micrometers thick The intrinsic efficiency (ignoring attenuation from the housing) is 100% for 10 keV photons 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 13 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors The efficiency is reduced to approximately 1% for 150 keV photons and remains more or less constant above this energy Above 60 keV, the interactions involve Compton scattering almost exclusively 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 14 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors Gamma rays transfer energy to electrons (principally by compton scattering) and these electrons traverse the intrinsic region of the detector 5/2003 Rev 2 (+) (-) e II.3.5 – slide 15 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors When a charged particle traverses the intrinsic (depletion) region, electrons are promoted from the valence band to the conduction band This results in a hole in the valence band Once in the conduction band, the electron is mobile and it moves to the anode while the positive hole moves to the cathode (actually it is displaced by electrons moving to the anode) 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 16 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors e e e e e e e e e e e + e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 5/2003 Rev 2 e e e e e II.3.5 – slide 17 of 45 Semiconductor Detectors The average energy needed to create an electron-hole pair in silicon is about 3.6 eV The average needed to create an ion pair in gas is about 34 eV, so for the same energy deposited, we get about 34/3.6 or about 9 times more charged pairs 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 18 of 45 Energy Resolution The energy resolution in a detector is E/E, which is proportional to N where N is the number of charged pairs Using a semiconductor detector, we receive about 9, or 3 times the resolution of a gas ionization detector system Compared to a scintillation detector which requires about 1000 eV to create one photoelectron at the PM tube, the resolution is about 17 times better 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 19 of 45 Germanium vs Silicon Detectors Germanium (Ge) requires only 2.9 eV to create an electron-hole pair vs. 3.6 eV for silicon, so the energy resolution is (3.6/2.9) = 1.1 times that of silicon The problem with Ge is that thermal excitation creates electron-hole pairs. For this reason liquid nitrogen is used to cool the electronics of germanium systems 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 20 of 45 Ge(Li) and Si(Li) Detectors Germanium with lithium ions used to create the depletion zone form what is known as a Ge(Li) “jelly” detector Silicon with lithium ions used to create the depletion zone comprise what is known as a Si(Li) “silly” detector 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 21 of 45 Ge(Li) and Si(Li) Detectors For gamma ray detection, the detector efficiency for the photoelectric effect is proportional to Z5, where Z is the atomic number of the detector material Since for Ge, Z=32, and the Z of Si is 14, Ge detectors are about 62 times more efficient than Si detectors 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 22 of 45 Germanium Detectors Germanium detectors are semiconductor diodes having a p-i-n structure in which the intrinsic (I) region is sensitive to ionizing radiation, particularly x rays and gamma rays. Under reverse bias, an electric field extends across the intrinsic or depleted region. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 23 of 45 Germanium Detectors When photons interact with the material within the depleted volume of a detector, charge carriers (holes and electrons) are produced and are swept by the electric field to the P and N electrodes. This charge, which is in proportion to the energy deposited in the detector by the incoming photon, is converted into a voltage pulse by an integral charge sensitive preamplifier. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 24 of 45 Germanium Detectors Because germanium has relatively low band gap, these detectors must be cooled in order to reduce the thermal generation of charge carriers (thus reverse leakage current) to an acceptable level. Otherwise, leakage current induced noise destroys the energy resolution of the detector. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 25 of 45 Germanium Detectors Liquid nitrogen, which has a temperature of 77 °K is the common cooling medium for such detectors. The detector is mounted in a vacuum chamber which is attached to or inserted into an LN2 dewar called a cryostat. The sensitive detector surfaces are thus protected from moisture and condensible contaminants. Electrically cooled cryostats are also available. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 26 of 45 Germanium Detectors There are two types of germanium detectors, ptype and n-type. The detectors are connected to a preamplifier. There are only two basic types of preamplifiers in use on Ge detectors. These are charge sensitive preamplifiers, which employ either dynamic charge restoration (RC feedback), or pulsed charge restoration (Pulsed optical or Transistor reset) methods to discharge the integrator. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 27 of 45 Broad Energy Detectors Broad Energy Ge (BEGe) Detector covers the energy range of 3 keV to 3 MeV. The resolution at low energies is equivalent to that of low energy Ge detectors and the resolution at high energy is comparable to that of good quality coaxial detectors. Most importantly the BEGe has a short, fat shape which greatly enhances the efficiency below 1 MeV for typical sample geometries. This shape is chosen for optimum efficiency for real samples in the energy range that is most important for routine gamma analysis. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 28 of 45 Broad Energy Detectors In addition to higher efficiency for typical samples, the BEGe exhibits lower background than typical coaxial detectors because it is more transparent to high energy cosmogenic background radiation that permeates above ground laboratories and to high energy gammas from naturally occurring radioisotopes such as 40K and 208Tl (Thorium). This aspect of thin detector performance has long been recognized in applications such as actinide lung burden analysis. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 29 of 45 Broad Energy Detectors The BEGe is designed with an electrode structure that enhances low energy resolution and is fabricated from select germanium having an impurity profile that improves charge collection (thus resolution and peak shape) at high energies. Indeed, this ensures good resolution and peak shape over the entire mid-range which is particularly important in analysis of the complex spectra from uranium and plutonium. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 30 of 45 Broad Energy Detectors In addition to routine sample counting, there are many applications in which the BEGe Detector really excels. In internal dosimetry the BEGe gives the high resolution and low background need for actinide lung burden analysis and the efficiency and resolution at high energy for whole body counting. The same is true of certain waste assay systems particularly those involving special nuclear materials. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 31 of 45 Broad Energy Detectors The BEGe detector and associated preamplifier are normally optimized for energy rates of less than 40 000 MeV/sec. Charge collection times prohibit the use of short amplifier shaping time constants. Resolution is specified with shaping time constants of 4-6 microseconds typically. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 32 of 45 Broad Energy Detectors Another big advantage of the BEGe is that the detector dimensions are virtually the same on a model by model basis. This means that like units can be substituted in an application without complete recalibration and that computer modeling can be done once for each detector size and used for all detectors of that model. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 33 of 45 Broad Energy Detectors Absolute Efficiency of the Canberra Industries BE5030 compared to a Coaxial Detector of 60 mm diameter by 80 mm length for a source measuring 74 mm diameter by 21 mm thick located on the detector end cap. Both detectors have approximately 50% Relative Efficiency for a 60Co point source at 25 cm. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 34 of 45 Broad Energy Detectors With cross-sectional areas of 20 to 50 cm2 and thickness’ of 20 to 30 mm, the nominal relative efficiency is given below along with the specifications for the entire range of models. BEGe detectors are normally equipped with our low background composite carbon windows. Beryllium or aluminum windows are also available. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 35 of 45 Germanium Detectors 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 36 of 45 Comparison of Broad Energy and Coax Detectors 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 37 of 45 Broad Energy Detectors 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 38 of 45 Extended Range Germanium Detectors The extended range coaxial germanium detector haves a unique thin-window contact on the front surface which extends the useful energy range down to 3 keV. Conventional coaxial detectors have a lithium-diffused contact typically between 0.5 and 1.5 mm thick. This dead layer stops most photons below 40 keV or so rendering the detector virtually worthless at low energies. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 39 of 45 Extended Range Germanium Detectors The extended range detector, with its exclusive thin entrance window and with a Beryllium cryostat window, offers all the advantages of conventional standard coaxial detectors such as high efficiency, good resolution, and moderate cost along with the energy response of the more expensive Reverse Electrode Ge (REGe) detector. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 40 of 45 Extended Range Germanium Detectors The effective window thickness can be determined experimentally by comparing the intensities of the 22 keV and 88 keV peaks from 109Cd. With the standard 0.5 mm Be window, the XtRa detector is guaranteed to give a 22 to 88 keV intensity ratio of greater than 20:1. Aluminum windows are also available. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 41 of 45 Extended Range Detectors The response curves illustrate the efficiency of the XtRa detector compared to a conventional Ge detector. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 42 of 45 Extended Range Germanium Detectors The response curves illustrate the efficiency of the XtRa detector compared to a conventional Ge detector. 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 43 of 45 Extended Range Germanium Detectors Spectroscopy from 3 keV up Wide range of efficiencies High resolution – good peak shape Excellent timing resolution High energy rate capability Diode FET protection Warm-up/HV shutdown High rate indicator 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 44 of 45 Where to Get More Information Cember, H., Introduction to Health Physics, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York (2000) Firestone, R.B., Baglin, C.M., Frank-Chu, S.Y., Eds., Table of Isotopes (8th Edition, 1999 update), Wiley, New York (1999) International Atomic Energy Agency, The Safe Use of Radiation Sources, Training Course Series No. 6, IAEA, Vienna (1995) 5/2003 Rev 2 II.3.5 – slide 45 of 45