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Chapter 6 Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages: Creating a New European Society and Culture (476–1000) The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved The veneration of icons was central to Byzantine religious life, and Byzantine missionaries brought this practice with them as they spread Christianity throughout Eastern Europe from the ninth century onward. A masterpiece of Byzantine art, the icon of “Our Lady of Vladimir” was sent from Constantinople to Kiev (Ukraine) in the early twelfth century and was later transferred to Moscow in 1395 to protect the city from Mongol attacks. It depicts a sorrowful Virgin Mary gazing intently at the viewer while the infant Jesus raises his head to his mother’s cheek. The Granger Collection, NYC—All rights reserved The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Byzantine Empire (324–1453) Periods: Construction of Constantinople in 324 to start of Arab expansion and spread of Islam in 632—(greatest political & cultural achievements) 632 to conquest of Asia Minor by Seljuk Turks in 1071 (or, fall of Constantinople to Western Crusaders in 1204) 1071/1204 to fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Turks in 1453 The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Byzantine Empire under Justinian (r. 527–565) Co-ruled absolutely with wife Theodora Constantinople: pop. 350,000, largest city, crossroads of Asia & Europe Centralized government: “one God, one empire, one religion” The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Byzantine Empire under Justinian (r. 527–565) Law reform: four-volume Corpus Juris Civilis (“body of civil law”)— used as a model through the Renaissance Church of Hagia Sophia—Justinian’s most famous monument Briefly recaptured North Africa, Italy, southern Spain The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Map 6–1 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF JUSTINIAN’S DEATH The inset shows the empire in 1025, before its losses to the Seljuk Turks. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Built during the reign of Justinian, Hagia Sophia (Church of Holy Wisdom) is a masterpiece of Byzantine and world architecture. After the Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Hagia Sophia was transformed into a mosque with four minarets, still visible today. © Steve Vidler/Alamy The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Byzantine Christianity A.k.a. Eastern Orthodoxy Missionaries (later saints) Cyril & Methodius create Greek-based alphabet for Slavs of the Balkans— Cyrillic Old Church Slavonic—international Slavic language through which Byzantine Christianity spread in Eastern Europe The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved The Court of Empress Theodora. Byzantine early Christian mosaic showing the union of political and spiritual authority in the person of the Empress. San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy. Photograph © Scala/Art Resource The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Persians and Muslims During the reign of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610-640), the Byzantine Empire resisted Persian advances successfully. However, by 632, Islamic invasions overran much of the empire. Not until Leo III of the Isaurian dynasty (r. 717-740) did the Byzantines successfully repel Arab armies. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Persians and Muslims (cont.) Repelling the Arab armies forced a major reconstruction of the diminished empire. The new system made possible a more disciplined and flexible use of military power. Byzantium went on the offense, leading to an age of art, culture and literature. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Persians and Muslims (cont.) The rapid territorial expansion may have overtaxed the empire’s strength. In the eleventh century, Byzantine fortunes rapidly reversed. By 1261, Byzantine power was a shadow of its former self, the empire was impoverished, and the Turks became a constant threat. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Islam Muhammad (570–632) Marriage to wealthy widow in Mecca at 25 Religious epiphany at 40—God’s word recited to him by angel Gabriel Revelations collected by followers into Islamic holy book, the Qur’an (“a reciting”), 650–651 The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Islam (cont.) Muhammad (570–632) Summons all Arabs to submit to God’s will • Muslim = submissive, surrendering • Islam = submission Muhammad, “the Prophet,” believed to be last of God’s prophets Driven from Mecca, 622, returned with an army and conquered, 624 The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved A Muslim and a Christian play the ud or lute together, from a thirteenth-century Book of Chants in the Escorial Monastery of Madrid. Medieval Europe was deeply influenced by Arab–Islamic culture, transmitted particularly through Spain. Some of the many works in Arabic on musical theory were translated into Latin and Hebrew, but the main influence on music came from the arts of singing and playing spread by minstrels. A Moor and a Christian playing the lute, miniature in a book of music from the “Cantigas” of Alphonso X “the Wise” (1221–1284). Thirteenth century (manuscript). Monastero de El Excorial, El Escorial, Spain/index/Bridgeman Art Library The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Islamic Divisions 7th c. disputes: Line of succession to Muhammad (caliphate) Doctrinal issues of inclusivity Shi’a: backers of caliph Ali; developed theology of martyrdom; embattled minority in mainstream Islam Sunnis (followers of sunna, “tradition”): majority centrist; loyalty to Islamic community above all The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Islamic Empires Muslims attacked fatigued Byzantine & Persian empires, overrunning Persia by 651 By 750, Muslim Empire stretched from Spain through North Africa & Arabia to India Halted in Western Europe by Charles Martel at Poitiers in 732 Capital moved from Mecca to Damascus, then to Baghdad in 750 The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Map 6–2 Muslim Conquests and Domination of the Mediterranean to about 750 C.E. The rapid spread of Islam (both as a religion and as a political-military power) is shown here. Within 125 years of Muhammad’s rise, Muslims came to dominate Spain and all areas south and east of the Mediterranean. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Byzantium’s Contribution to Islamic Civilization The caliphates of Islam regarded Byzantium as a model. The splendor of court ceremony, architecture and craftsmanship, and art and iconography were admired. Muslims wanted to understand faith on an intellectual level. Developed interest in logic, philosophy, and medicine The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Muslims are enjoined to live by the divine law, or Shari’a, and have a right to have disputes settled by an arbiter of the Shari’a. Here we see a husband complaining about his wife before the state-appointed judge, or qadi. The wife, backed up by two other women, points an accusing finger at the husband. In such cases, the first duty of the qadi, who should be a learned person of faith, is to try to effect a reconciliation before the husband divorces his wife, or the wife herself seeks a divorce. Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved The European Debt to Islam Arab invasions contributed to the formation of Western Europe. Diverting the attention of the Byzantine Empire allowed two Germanic peoples to gain ascendancy. Franks Lombards The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved The European Debt to Islam (cont.) Arabs taught Western inhabitants about irrigation, tanning leather, and refining silk. Islamic scholars translated Greek works on astronomy, mathematics, and medicine into Latin. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved On the Eve of Frankish Ascendancy 5th & 6th c. decline 7th c.: Byzantine Empire occupied with Islamic threat, leaving most of the West to Franks & Lombards Western culture forming from GrecoRoman, Judeo-Christian, and barbarian heritages Decline of temporal powers matched by rise of Christian church The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Germanic Migrations “Invasion” preceded by centuries of Roman-Germanic coexistence Ended with influx of Visigoths, starting 376, pushed by Huns from Asia Visigoths reached southern Gaul, Spain Vandals gained control of northwest Africa and western Mediterranean Burgundians settled in Gaul Franks settled in north-central Gaul Angles & Saxons in England The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Barbarian Rule 410—Visigoths under Alaric sack Rome 452—Attila the Hun invades Italy 455—Vandals sack Rome 476—Traditional end of Roman Empire when barbarian Odovacer deposes last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Map 6–3 Barbarian Migrations into the West in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries The forceful intrusion of Germanic and non-Germanic barbarians into the Roman Empire from the last quarter of the fourth century through the fifth century made for a constantly changing pattern of movement and relations. The map shows the major routes taken by the usually unwelcome newcomers and the areas most deeply affected by the main groups. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Barbarian Rule (cont.) Barbarians saturate Western empire by end of 5th century Roman and Germanic cultures mix, Roman more influential Visigoths, Ostrogoths, & Vandals entered West as Arian Christians Franks of Gaul convert to Catholic (Roman) Christianity around 500, others to follow The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Western Society and Christianity Church government modeled on Roman administration: centralized & hierarchical Cathedral became center of urban life, local bishop highest authority, with pope in Rome filling vacuum left by departed Roman emperors The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Monastic Culture Monks growing in number & respect With rise of Church, monasticism replaces martyrdom as highest tribute Life of chastity, poverty, obedience Hermit monasticism followed by communal monasticism—rise of monasteries The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Monastic Culture (cont.) Benedict of Nursia Founder of Benedictine order, 529 Monks Christianized England & Germany Rule for Monasteries The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Papal Primacy Early state control of church in East & West (Emperor Constantine) Supplanted by doctrine of papal primacy: raised Roman pope to position of supremacy in the church Title pontifex maximus: “supreme priest” The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Religious Division of Christendom Differences between East & West: Nature of the Trinity Place of images in worship—Iconoclasm Eastern emperors’ claims to both secular & religious sovereignty—Caesaropapism Also: Eastern church denied existence of Purgatory, allowed divorce, permitted priests (but not bishops) to marry, and conducted services in the local language (vs. Latin or Greek) Schism of 1054—pope & patriarch excommunicate each other The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved An eleventh-century Byzantine manuscript shows an iconoclast whiting out an image of Christ. The Iconoclastic Controversy was an important factor in the division of Christendom into separate Latin and Greek branches. The Granger Collection, NYC—All rights reserved. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Kingdom of the Franks Frankish Merovingian dynasty established under Clovis (ca. 466– 511) in Gaul Franks occupied modern France, Belgium, Netherlands, western Germany The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Kingdom of the Franks (cont.) Beginning of most persistent medieval political problem: central rule versus local power Carolingian dynasty supplants Merovingian, 751, under Pepin the Short The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Frankish Church Church dependent on Frankish protection against East and Lombards Carolingian policy under Charles Martel (d. 741): convert the conquered to Roman Christianity 755: Franks defeat Lombards, giving pope lands around Rome, creating the Papal States The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Aachen cathedral. © Andrew Moss/Alamy The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Charlemagne (r. 768–814) Son of Pepin the Short; continued policy of protecting Rome & conquering land in the north 774, defeated Lombards in northern Italy & assumed title “King of the Lombards” Saxons subjugated, Christianized, eastern Avars destroyed The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Charlemagne (cont.) Muslims driven beyond Pyrenees Kingdom of Charlemagne ultimately covered modern France, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, western Germany, northern Italy, part of Spain, & Corsica The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Map 6–4 THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE TO 814 Building on the successes of his predecessors, Charlemagne greatly increased the Frankish domains. Such traditional enemies as the Saxons and the Lombards fell under his sway. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Charlemagne (cont.) Desired to be “universal emperor” of a Frankish Christian empire Constructed palace city at Aachen, imitating ancient Roman & contemporary Eastern courts Used church to promote social stability & order The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Charlemagne (cont.) Crowned emperor by Pope Leo III in 800; began what came to be known as the Holy Roman Empire— considered revival of old Roman Empire, based in Germany after 870 Governed through about 250 counts who maintained local armies, collected dues, & administered justice through local law court or mallus; problem of loyalty The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Charlemagne (cont.) Missi domenici: royal envoys sent to oversee counts; marginally effective The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Carolingian Renaissance & Decline Europe’s best scholars brought to Aachen to develop culture & education; also improve imperial administration Alcuin of York (735–804): AngloSaxon director of palace school; brought classical & Christian learning in schools run by monks The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved A Multicultural Book Cover Carolingian education, art, and architecture served royal efforts to unify the kingdom by fusing inherited Celtic-Germanic and Greco-Roman-Byzantine cultures. Charlemagne, his son, and grandsons decorated their churches with a variety of art forms, among them illuminated manuscripts, such as the bejeweled metalwork that became the binding of the Lindau Gospels (c. 870). Art Resource/The Pierpont Morgan Library The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Breakup of the Carolingian Empire Weakness of empire was regionalism; local counts look to self-interest Louis the Pious (r. 814–840): problem of dividing empire among his sons Treaty of Verdun, 843: Carolingian Empire divided among warring sons West (France): Charles the Bald Middle: Lothar (Lotharingia) East (Germany): Louis the German Middle kingdom split again at Lothar’s death, inciting conflict between eastern & western kingdoms (Germany & France) that continued into modern times The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Map 6–5 THE TREATY OF VERDUN, 843, AND THE TREATY OF MERSEN, 870 The Treaty of Verdun divided the kingdom of Louis the Pious among his three feuding children: Charles the Bald, Lothar, and Louis the German. After Lothar’s death in 855, his lands and titles were divided among his three sons: Louis, Charles, and Lothar II. When Lothar II, who had received his father’s northern kingdom, died in 870, Charles the Bald and Louis the German claimed the middle kingdom and divided it between themselves in the Treaty of Mersen. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims New External Threats Vikings Magyars Muslims The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Map 6–6 VIKING, ISLAMIC, AND MAGYAR INVASIONS TO THE ELEVENTH CENTURY Western Europe was sorely beset by new waves of outsiders from the ninth to the eleventh century. From north, east, and south, a stream of invading Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims brought the West at times to near collapse and, of course, gravely affected institutions within Europe. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved This seventy-five-foot-long Viking burial ship from the early ninth century is decorated with beastly figures. It bore a dead queen, her servant, and assorted sacrificed animals to the afterlife. The bodies of the passengers were confined within a burial cabin at midship surrounded with a treasure-trove of jewels and tapestries. Dorling Kindersley Media Library. Universitets Oldsaksamling © Dorling Kindersley The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Feudal Society Middle Ages: chronic absence of effective central government, constant threat of famine, disease, invasion; weaker sought protection of stronger Feudal society: social, political, military, economic system that arose from these conditions The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Feudal Society (cont.) Society dominated by warlords Vassals: men promising service to more powerful men in exchange for protection; developed into professional military class (knights) Terms: fealty, fief, scutage The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Daily Life & Religion Manor: village farm, center of rural agrarian economy, tended by peasant tenant farmers Demesne: the part of the land tended for the lord of the manor; usu. 1/4 to 1/3 of the land Peasants: freemen or serfs; paid various dues in kind to lord Three-field system of crop rotation: summer crops in one field, winter crops in next field, third field fallow Vassal could swear fealty to more than one lord: problem of loyalty “Liege lord”: one to whom loyalty is owed above all others The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved The Lord of the Manor Dining. © The British Library Board. All Rights Reserved 42130, f.208 The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Kitchen Scene; Chopping Meat. © The British Library Board. All Rights Reserved 42130 f207v The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Fragmentation and Divided Loyalty Hereditary possession became a legally recognized principle in the ninth century and laid the basis for claims to real ownership. “Liege lord” – the one master the vassal must obey even against other masters Personal loyalty and service became secondary to acquiring property. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved Fragmentation and Divided Loyalty (cont.) The genius of feudal government lay in its adaptability. The process embraced a wide spectrum of people. The foundations of a modern nationstate would emerge. The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 Pearson Education All Rights Reserved