Download Religions and Philosophies of China

Religions and Philosophies of
China
Instructor Pacas
Early Religions of China
• During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties the
Chinese engaged in Ancestor Worship
and also incorporating some elements of
steppe nomadic religious traditions.
• Under the Zhou, the Mandate of Heaven
was introduced and adopted by the ethnic
Chinese population so that it became a
facet of Chinese culture.
Zhou China
• Under the Zhou the Chinese developed
the I Ching (Book of Changes) which set
down in writing the oracle divinations of ox
shoulder bones and tortoise shells used by
the Shang and early part of Zhou dynasty.
End of Western Zhou 771 BCE
• The period that followed the fall of the
Western Zhou in 771 BCE witnessed
China fragmenting into 148 petty
kingdoms/states.
• The period from 771-256 BCE is known as
the Eastern Zhou and it is divided into the
Spring and Autumn period (771-404 BCE)
and the Warring States period (403 – 256
BCE).
Zhou China
Chinese philosophies
• Due to the instability of the period,
Chinese philosophers began to question
the Zhou’s claim of the Mandate of
Heaven and its efficacy in explaining
political developments of the period.
• It seemed to well educated Chinese that
military strength and organization
determined success more than strict
adherence to Heaven’s Mandate.
Philosophies Cont’d
• The period between 771- circa 600 BCE
witnessed a thriving period of diverse
philosophies in China.
• These philosophers pondered diverse set of
questions but predominantly how rulers could
rule their respective territory most effectively.
• Because the period was one of massive military
actions the need for large well supplied
professional troops was essential and thus this
became a central issue to contemplate.
Cont’d
• Many of these petty states abolished the
traditional system of serfdom that had
existed under the Zhou and Shang and
assigned land directly to peasant families
who were taxed and a portion of their
production taken to supply the
professional armies of the state instead of
local lords.
Conscription of peasants
• Peasants were also conscripted into the military,
which now was increasingly becoming only
males who served, and advancements in the
military based on merit as opposed to social
economic class.
• These developing strict guidelines under which
certain states operated gave rise to the school of
thought known as the Legalist School (faija).
Legalist School
• The Legalist School believed in
standardization and codification of these
laws that governed these states.
• They believed in strict adherence to the
law.
• Infractions should be met with a harsh
punishment to deter challenges.
• The state should always strive to prepare
itself for war.
Confucius 551 – 479 BCE
• Kongzi (Confucius) challenged what he felt was
the extremely harsh philosophy of the Legalist
School and opted for a softer way of influencing
and eliciting correct behavior from people by
setting the correct example.
• He argued that people were essentially
benevolent/good but just needed to be shown by
example how to behave correctly.
Confucius
Confucius Cont’d
• Confucius hoped to convince rulers to
adopt his idealistic vision of benevolent
rule based on the early Zhou rituals and
reverence of ancestors.
• He argued that the most basic human
quality was our capacity to empathize with
each other (virtue of ren which translates
to humanity, benevolence, kindness).
Confucius Cont’d
• Confucius claimed that the most important
quality that a king had to possess was
‘virtue’ and through exercising virtue his
followers would be inspired to follow him
loyally and reciprocate virtuous behavior.
• Confucius was strictly a philosopher (like
Socrates or Aristotle) and did not claim
any supernatural ability like JudeoChristian prophets.
Confucian School 479-256 BCE
• Confucian philosophers continued challenging
the Legalist Schools of thought championing the
Confucian ideal of inherent human goodness in
all people and promoting the idea of virtue and
virtuous action.
• Expanding on these ideas were two prominent
Confucian philosophers, Mengzi (Mencius) and
Xunzi who were active Confucian philosophers
during the Warring State period.
Mengzi (Mencius)
• Championed Confucian philosophy but
also added to it by advocating the social
hierarchy of the time.
• He reasoned that it was correct that those
that work with their heads should rule over
those that work with their hands.
• Yet he also admonished kings and princes
that the common people were more
important than their leaders.
Xunzi
• Xunzi was responsible for attempting to
synchronize aspects of Legalist thought with
Confucianism.
• He believed in strict adherence to the law.
• But that law should be based on virtues.
• Filial piety, commitment for one’s family, was the
fundamental foundation for all other moral
teachings and behavior.
• He explained natural catastrophes as works of
nature not a punishment from ‘Heaven’ (and that
it was the responsibility of leaders to attempt to
safe-guard against).
Challenge to Confucians and
Legalists
• Mozi argued that both the Confucians and
Legalists were wasting their time with
insignificant ponderings.
• Ultimately, rulers owed the people the
basic necessities of life Mozi argued.
• His school of philosophy was known as
the Mohists.
Laozi-Daoism-The Way
• Laozi- another philosopher who challenged the
Confucians and Legalists argued that the only
constant in life was ever present change.
• Only change is constant
• To rise is to fall, to strive for strength will
eventually lead to weakness, etc.
• extremely abstract thinking the main principle of
change in the universe is the reversal of
opposites (unceasing alteration of yin and yang)
from the Daodejing or Tao-te-jing.
• Daoist philosophy has become central to certain
Buddhist sects and also part of martial arts.
The Warring States 403-221 BCE
• All the philosophical schools that
developed during the Eastern Zhou to
challenge the Legalist School came under
attack by the Legalists of Qin State.
• Well organized and embracing Legalist
philosophy, the Qin would eventually
emerged as the victor of the all the warring
states in 221 BCE.
Qin Empire
Other Seminal Works
• Perhaps no other work has been more
influential in the field of military analysis as
the work produced by Sun Tzu, The Art of
War.
• “War is the greatest affair of the state, the
basis of life and death, the Way (Dao) to
survival or extinction. It must be thoroughly
pondered and analyzed.” Sun Tzu circa
350 BCE
Religions of Asia:
Hinduism, Shinto, Buddhism,
and Islam
Instructor Pacas
Hinduism
• Hinduism is a
combination of
Dravidian religious
beliefs mixed with
Indo-Aryan beliefs.
• It is polytheistic
• It is a collection of
ceremonies,
philosophies, and
beliefs synthesized
into a dynamic
cultural tradition.
History of Hinduism
• The Civilization of the Indus Valley already
worshipped members of the pantheon
associated with present day Hinduism, such as
Shiva, quite possibly the ideas of reincarnation
(though without the moral gauge associated in
later centuries)*, a rudimentary form of the
concepts of dharma and karma before the
coming of the Indo-Aryans who would introduce
the Vedic/current aspects of present day
Hinduism.
Indo-Aryans
• The intrusion of the Indo-Aryans among
the Dravidian groups during the migration
period of Indo-Europeans (circa 25001300 BCE) weaved a rich tapestry of
amalgamated religious doctrines of IndoEuropean and Dravidian beliefs and
literary works such as the Vedas,
Upanishad, and the Mahabharata and
Ramayana.
The Vedas
• The Vedas which translates in the Sanskrit as
knowledge are a large body of texts originating
in ancient India during the period of Indo-Aryan
intrusion (1700-1500 BCE).
• These texts constitute the oldest layer of
Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of
Hinduism.
• It is claimed that they were introduced to
humanity by the gods. They are supposed to
have been directly revealed, and thus are called
sruti ("what is heard"), distinguishing them from
other religious texts, which are called smrti
("what is remembered").
Vedas Cont’d
• The Vedic texts are organized around four canonical
collections known as Saṃhitās,
• The first three are related to the performance of sacrifice.
• The Rigveda contains hymns to be recited by the
participants of the ceremony.
• The Yajurveda contains formulas to be recited by the
priest.
• The Samaveda contains formulas to be sung by those
that service the priest in the ceremony.
• The fourth is the Atharvaveda, a collection of spells and
incantations, and charms.
• The individual verses contained in these compilations
are known as mantras.
Upanishad
• Upanishad writings are a collection of
philosophical texts which form the
theoretical basis for the Hindu religion.
• They are not sruti (revealed truths) but
rather seek to explain and make sense of
the Vedas (revealed knowledge).
Mahabharata and Ramayana
• Sacred texts of Ancient India that are a
compilation of legends concerning wars
between forces of good vs. evil, stories of
heroes, as well as philosophical works that
try to emphasize right actions of human
beings.
Basic principles in Hinduism
• Reincarnation
• Karma
• Dharma
Cycle of Life-Reincarnation
• Reincarnation- is the religious or philosophical
concept that the soul or spirit, after death, begins
a new life in a new body that may be human,
animal or spiritual (After the coming of the IndoAryans, the individual’s reincarnation depended
on the moral quality of the previous life's
actions).
• This process can be endless if the soul is
incapable of using the time allotted to it,
especially as a human, to reach enlightenment.
Karma
• In Hinduism, Karma is the concept of
‘actions’ or ‘deeds’ which have a direct
bearing on the cycle of ‘cause and effect’
that will determine how your current
existence will be evaluated (productive or
not in ending the cycle of rebirth and
therefore suffering- known as Samsara).
Dharma
• Divinely inspired/transmitted laws and
orders that are meant to keep the natural
order of things and thus promote harmony
in existence i.e. physical world and
spiritual world.
• Following Dharma is the only way to break
the cycle of rebirth and suffering of
Samsara and reach enlightenment.
Shinto
Shinto
• Shinto or Shintoism is the religion of the
ancient Japanese people and it is akin to a
combination of ancestor worship of China,
shamanistic belief in all things having
spirits, and the belief of establishing
harmony between the physical realm and
that of the spirit.
• Shin-spirit To- Way- translated to “Way of
the gods.”
Shinto Cont’d
• Shinto requires that the believers carry out set
guidelines and ceremonies in the worship of
spirits and ancestors.
• Also the chanting of prayers to worship both
spirits and ancestors in order to keep harmony
between both realms.
• The oldest surviving text to date dating to the 8th
century CE illustrates that Shinto was already a
well established religion in Japan by this date.
Shinto Shrine
The gate or ‘Torii’ to a Shinto shrine is the division
between the physical realm and that of the divine.
Buddhism
Instructor Pacas
• Some time between 7th – 4th century BCE an
Indian prince by the name of Siddhartha
Gautama developed a philosophy influenced
by concepts of Hinduism with the goal
transcending the realm of suffering known as
Samsara.
• Siddhartha Gautama achieved his goal while
still alive of attaining enlightenment and thus
became the Buddha (Enlightened One).
The Path
• The Buddha preached a message based
on Four Noble Truths:
• Life is suffering
• That there is a cause to that suffering…the
main cause of suffering is desire.
• That there is a way to end suffering
• The way is by following the Eightfold Path
Eightfold Path
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Right opinion
Right thought
Right speech
Right activity
Right livelihood
Right effort
Right attention
Right concentration
Buddhism essentially not a religion
but a philosophy
• In contrast to a localized approach to religion
that seems to have pertained in ancient
human societies, The Buddha taught that his
analysis was universal, that it was true for all
people everywhere regardless of their
culture.
• This would allow Buddhism in the centuries
following the death of the Buddha to spread
from India all the way to China relatively
quickly.
Prince Asoka (Ashoka)
• Buddhism in the ancient world got a huge
boost when Prince Asoka of the Mauryan
Empire (reigned ca 268-239 BCE) became a
huge patron of the philosophy.
• According to legend Asoka became
interested in Buddhism after he had an
epiphany/remorse after a massacre and
decided to abandon his violent expansionist
policies and become a philosopher king
instead.
Asoka Stele
• By the time of Prince Asoka’s possible conversion
(there is still discussion concerning this) there existed
schisms in the Buddhist schools of philosophy.
• Asoka called a council in 244 BCE to try to develop
Buddhist orthodoxy but it only succeeded in further
splintering the community.
• Problem was that the arhats (Monks who had attained
enlightenment) enjoyed their positions of influence and
deference in the community.
• This was challenged by another monk Mahadeva who
criticized the arhats for indulging in worldly desires.
• Throughout its history and development, Buddhist
philosophy has often synthesized itself with other
philosophies and religions and this has made the
effective study of its history a bit problematic since
all diverse schools of belief claim a certain level of
orthodoxy.
• Some schools are atheistic while others assign to
the Buddha and Bodhisattvas (those who forego
transcendence and stay on earthly realm to help
other people reach Nirvana (enlightenment) a level
of deification.
Buddhism and the Silk Road
• Buddhism exploded in Central Asia and
reached China during the 2nd century BCE-1st
century CE.
• Scythian Sakas monks travelled with the
caravans from northern India to China were
they gained many converts from Eurasian
steppe nomads particularly Tocharians/Yueh
Chih and the Kushans of northern India.
• From the Tarim Basin it spread to China.
Buddhism and banking
• Buddhist monasteries were responsible for
developing a rudimentary banking system as
traders along the Silk Road deposited wealth
in the temples. A document recording the
deposit functioned as a sort of bank note that
could be used to withdraw deposits from
other monasteries along the way.
• Many of these merchants became
benefactors of the temples and soon
Buddhist temples were one of the wealthiest
communities along the Silk Road.
Islam
Islam
• Islam is a fairly modern religion.
• Established by the prophet Muhammad who
lived 570 – 632 CE.
• It is a monotheistic religion following and
building on the traditions of Judaism and
Christianity.
• Its holy text is the Koran (Quran) considered by
its adherents to be the word of God (Allah in
Arabic- this is God of the Old and New
Testament not some other deity).
Islam Cont’d
• Followers consider Muhammad to be the
seal of the prophets of God so the last one
to be bestowed on humanity by the divine
will.
• Muslims or followers of the faith follow
sunnah (teachings) through collections in
the Hadith (Sayings or thoughts of the
prophet).
Islam Cont’d
• Muslims believe that God is one and
incomparable and the purpose of existence of all
humanity is to love and serve God.
• Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete
and universal version of a primordial faith that
was revealed at many times and places before,
including through Abraham, Moses, and Jesus,
whom they consider prophets.
Islam Cont’d
• Muslims maintain that previous messages
and revelations have been partially altered
or corrupted over time, but consider the
Koran (Quran) to be both the unaltered
and the final revelation of God.
Islam Cont’d
• Religious concepts and practices include
the five pillars of Islam, which are basic
concepts and obligatory acts of worship
such as the hajj, and following Sharia
(Islamic law), which touches on virtually
every aspect of life, culture, and society.