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2013 Chinese Philosophies and
Religions
What is philosophy?
• Literally: a love for wisdom
• Typically asks Questions like:
– What is the purpose of life?
– What is a good person like?
– What is success?
– What is truth? What is knowledge?
– How should I act in a situation?
• Often philosophy and religion overlap
Why did these philosophies develop?
• War and social changes
were disrupting everyday
life
• Government lacked
control
• These philosophies helped
guide people and the
government to a better life
Religion In China
• The religious history of China is
complex, and has evolved over
the centuries.
• Deeply interwoven into their
beliefs is the worship of their
ancestors.
• The Chinese believed that the
spirits of their ancestors were
watching over them, and that
they could be called upon
during difficult times.
Chinese Folk Religion
• Belief in spirits
• Reverence for ancestors
• Priests perform blessing rituals:
– purifying space
– Exorcising evil spirits (“hungry ghosts”)
• Astrology
• Divination
Chinese metaphysics is about…
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Energy
Change
Balance
Harmony
Inter-relationships
Chinese Metaphysics
Movement of cosmic energies:
Rising
Falling
Expanding
Contracting
Rotating
Represented by and expressed in
the “five elements” of nature…
The “Five Elements”
Productive cycle
Fire
Wood
Water
Earth
Metal
Chinese Metaphysics
Concepts
• Chi – life force, life energy (“ultimate”)
• Yin-Yang – harmony of opposites
– Yin = passive state of energy
– Yang = active state of energy
Tao
[
– the “way” of the cosmos, of nature
Heaven (t’ien) and Earth
“Mandate of Heaven”
Practical applications: I-Ching and Feng Shui
The I-Ching
“Book of Changes”
• Ancient divination technique (at least 3000
years old)
• Intended to guide humans in decision making
• Based on combinations of lines representing
the ever changing relationship between
passive (yin) and active (yang) energy flow of
heaven, human, and earth
= yin
= yang
The Tri-grams
Eight combinations of three lines each:
heaven
wind /
wood
lake
Fire
water
thunder
mountain
earth
Using the I-Ching Tool
• Symbolism of the lines:
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Upper line = energy state of heaven
Middle line = energy state of human
Lower line = energy state of earth
#31
• Two sets of trigrams are divined to create a
hexagram
• Use coins or sticks to divine one of 64 hexagrams
• Use I-Ching text to discern meaning of the
hexagram and any additional meaning for
“changing lines” (energies on the verge of
changing)
• A skilled interpreter is needed to apply the
generic meaning of the hexagram
Feng Shui
• The Chinese art of placement (geomancy)
• Means “wind water”– symbolically, the
constant flow of wind and water that
creates constant change in the world also
affects us
• Uses the five elements and the eight
directions of the I-Ching as the Bagua tool
• Seeks to maintain constant and balanced
flow of energies (chi) in a space for
improved flow of energy in the people who
use the space
History of Chinese Philosophies
The History of Chinese Philosophy
• The Classical Age (6th century BC-2d century AD)
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Confucianism (Confucius, 551-479 BC)
Daoism (Lao Tzu, 6th century BC)
Mohism (Mo Tzu, 468-376 BC)
The Yin-Yang School (founder unknown)
The School of Names (Logic) (Hui Shih, c. 380-305 BC)
Legalism (Han Fei Tzu, d. 23 BC)
• The Medieval Age (2d-10th centuries BC): relations & conflicts
between Confucianism, Daoism, & Buddhism
• The Modern Age (11th century AD-Present)
– Neo-Confucianism (incorporation of Daoist & Buddhist elements in an
overall Confucian perspective) (Chu Hsi, 1130-1200 AD & many others)
– 20th century impact of Western philosophies such as Pragmatism &
Marxism
How is a man to live in a world dominated
by chaos, suffering, and absurdity??
Confucianism --> Moral order in society.
Legalism --> Rule by harsh law & order.
Daoism --> Freedom for individuals and
less govt. to avoid
uniformity and conformity.
Origins of the
Mandate
• During the Shang dynasty
(2000-1027 B.C.E.) the concept
of “Tian” was created
• Meaning: sky, heavens, god,
the cosmos
– idea of heaven
– governed all creation
– guided moral order
天
Origins of the
Mandate
• Zhou dynasty (1120-221 B.C.E.)
concept of “tian ming”
• Mandate of Heaven
– explains conquest and
submission of falling dynasties
– Divinely inspired process
– Anyone could assume the right
to rule
– Tian, or Heaven, chose who
would rule the people
The Mandate of Heaven is based on four principles:
• The right to rule is granted by Heaven
– Which gives the ruler prestige and religious importance.
• There is only one Heaven
– Therefore there can be only one ruler.
• The right to rule is based on the virtue of the ruler
– Which serves as a check on the ruler's power.
• The right to rule is not limited to one dynasty
– Which justifies rebellion as long as the rebellion is successful.
Origins of the
Mandate
• A dynasty maintained rule as
long as they:
– ruled with benevolence and
justice
– duties of the ruler were
carried out correctly
• Failure meant the Tian could
choose a new ruling family
– could not be selfish, cruel, or
oppressive
Dynastic Cycle
• Represents a dynasty’s rise
and fall
• Cycle starts with winning the
Mandate (approval) of heaven
• Period of prosperity, marked
by motivated and capable
emperors
• Apex (peak) marked by
political, economic, and
cultural flowering.
Dynastic Cycle
• Then the decline began,
usually slow (sometimes
quite rapid): marked by
administrative corruption,
repressive laws, and
incapable and lazy
emperors.
• Dynasty would face rebellion
and disunity, the loss of
peoples’ support, and loss of
Mandate
The Dynastic Cycle
Peak of Dynasty
Decline of
Dynasty
New Ruler
Achieves
Prosperity
Rebellion and
Disunity
Winner of the
Rebellion Wins The
Mandate of Heaven
Loss of The
Mandate of
Heaven
In Summary
The dynastic cycle appears as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
A new ruler unites China, founds a new dynasty, and gains the Mandate of Heaven
China, under the new dynasty, achieves prosperity.
The population increases
Corruption becomes rampant in the imperial court, and the empire begins to enter
decline and instability.
5. A natural disaster wipes out farm land. The disaster normally would not have been a
problem; however, together with the corruption and overpopulation it causes famine.
6. The famine causes the population to rebel and starts a civil war.
7. The ruler loses the Mandate of Heaven.
8. The population decreases because of the violence.
9. China goes through a warring states period.
10. One state emerges victorious.
11. The state starts a new empire.
12. The empire gains the Mandate of Heaven.
– (The cycle repeats itself.)
•
Kennedy, Bruce. "Chinese Dynastic Cycle." Killer Roos. 17 February 2008
Key Chinese Dynasties
A terra cotta officer from the Qin
Dynasty (221-206 BCE)
Emperor Taizong - Tang Dynasty
Xia
Shang
2070-1600 BCE
1600-1046 BCE
470 years
554 years
Zhou
West 1046-771 BCE
East 770-256
275 years
514 years
Tang
618-907 AD
289 years
Song
North 960-1127 AD
South 1127-1279 AD
167 years
152 years
Ming
1368-1644 AD
276 years
Qing
1644-1911 AD
268 years
Legalism
Legalism
Philosophy
Goal
Legalism
Founder:
Hanfeizi
Peace and order
in society
How
Achieved
Influence
Rulers should
establish strict
laws with
rewards for good
behavior and
harsh
punishment for
bad behavior.
The Qin dynasty
used legalist
ideas to build a
strong central
government and
well-organized
society.
Belief Systems (not religion)
• Legalism
– Human nature is wicked and selfish, people behave only
if they are ruled by laws and punishments – becomes
basis of many states
– Individual freedom should be sacrificed for the state
– Highest emphasis on ‘practical professions’ such as
farming or military
– The Qin dynasty adopted Legalism’s strict laws and
controls
• Helped to unify territory quickly and with large construction
projects (Great Wall)
• Caused great resentment amongst populous
• Drove people to Confucianism and Daoism
Co-Founders
• Han Feizi
– Was taught in Confucian tradition
– Wrote the Han Feizi, the main book of Legalism
– Died as a result of political duel in 233 B.C.
• Shangzi (Gungsun Yang)
– Traced China’s problems to overpopulation
– Believed Warring States period stemmed from lack of
resources and strife
– Strong government based on law would solve
problems
Rise of Chinese Philosophies
Legalism
• Founders:
– Li Si, Hanfeizi
• Ideas About Social Order:
– Efficient & powerful gov’t is key to social order
• Ideas About Government
– Gov’t should control ideas & use law & harsh
punishment to restore harmony
– Rewards for people who carry out their duties
well
Legalism
• Hanfiezi c. 250 bce
• Major Teachings
– People are naturally selfish and
corrupt so they need to be controlled
– Intellectualism and literacy are
discouraged
– Law is the supreme authority and
replaces morality
– The ruler must rule with a strong,
punishing hand.
– War is the means of strengthening
a ruler’s power.
• Implications for Government
– Many rules
– Harsh punishments
– Strong military
• Important during Q’in & Sui dynasties
280? - 233 B.C.E.
Han Fe Zi.
Lived during the
late Warring States
period.
Legalism became
the political
philosophy of the
Qin [Ch’in] Dynasty.
Legalism
• Han Feizi
– Realised times had changed
– Could no longer rely on
• lǐ (礼, ‘conventions’) to guide the nobles
• xìng (刑, ‘punishments’) to rule the commoners
– Required a new form of order
– Found it in fǎ (法) : Law, standards, norms
Han Feizi Text
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•
•
•
55 chapters
Some Taoist in theme
Inform ruler what pitfalls to avoid
System of rewards and punishments
Han Feizi Text (cont’d)
...rewards should be rich and certain so that the
people will be attracted by them; punishments
should be severe and definite so that the people will
fear them; and laws should be uniform and steadfast
so that the people will be familiar with them.
Consequently, the sovereign should show no
wavering in bestowing rewards and grant no pardon
in administering punishments, and he should add
honor to rewards and disgrace to punishments-when this is done, then both the worthy and the
unworthy will want to exert themselves...
Xunzi – Early Legalist
Legalism
Li Si, Qin Shi Huangdi, Shang Yang
Qin dynasty (221-207 BCE)
1st philosophy to be adopted by a Chinese state
Qin were coming out of warring states period
and desired to establish stability and control
over a unified empire. They saw unquestioned
conformity to the LAW as the means to achieve
this.
Qin created a TOTALITARIAN STATE
Legalism
• A third school of thought that shaped China’s early
history is Legalism.
• The most famous Legalist writer was Han Feizi.
• It is unknown when he was born, but he died in 233
B.C.
• In his book, of the same name, Han Feizi, rejected
Confucian ideas about proper behavior.
• Han Feizi believed that people acted out of selfinterest and would only respond to rewards and
punishments, not good examples.
Legalism
• Human Nature characterized
– naturally self-interested
– Has ‘two handles’ – reward & punishment
In ruling the world one must act in accord with
human nature.
In human nature there are the feelings of liking and
disliking, and hence rewards and punishments are
effective.
Legalism
•
The Ruler requires
– shì (勢):
•
the power to make his commands be obeyed
– shù (術):
•
methods
the ability to handle his subordinates
– fǎ (法):
•
authority
law
to guarantee impartiality and justice
Three Components of Legalism
1. Fa (Law)
2. Shi (Legitimacy)
3. Shu (Arts of the Ruler)
Fa (The Law)
Legalist Criticisms
• Rulers made laws when they came to power.
• Purpose was to allow rulers to be “benevolent”
• Really this meant laws could be enacted arbitrarily and
lead to corruption.
Solution
• Legalism sought to make a public, written legal code.
• This system would run the state, not the ruler.
• Laws were enforced by strict rewards/ punishments.
Shi (Legitimacy of Rule)
• Legalism puts emphasis on power of the ruler
not the person ruling.
• Had a negative view of humanity.
• Since there were few good people to rule, a
system needed to ensure that average men
could maintain order.
• Position held power not the person.
Shu (Arts of the Ruler)
• Morality and human nature are irrelevant.
• Benevolence is replaced by firm, strict rule.
• Disregard for the past unlike Taoism and
Confucianism--needed a system that would
work in the present.
Legalism
• Because of self-interest, Legalists believed that
only harsh laws imposed by a strong ruler
would ensure order.
• Han Feizi noted:
“The ruler alone possesses power, wielding it
like lightening or like thunder.”
 In 221 B.C., the Qin emperor Shi Huangdi used
Legalist ideas to unite China.
1. Human nature is naturally selfish.
2. Intellectualism and literacy is
discouraged.
3. Law is the supreme authority and
replaces morality.
4. The ruler must rule with a strong,
punishing hand.
5. War is the means of strengthening
a ruler’s power.
One who favors the principle
that individuals should obey a
powerful authority rather
than exercise individual
freedom.
The ruler, therefore, “cracks his
whip” on the backs of his
subjects!
Legalism
• Principles of Shāng Yāng (商鞅, d. 338)
– yī mín (一民; ‘one people’)
• Provides for legal equality for all
– dìng fǎ (定法; ‘fixing the standards’ )
• Provides for objectivity of interpretation
Since the officials well know that the people have knowledge of fa and orders … they
dare not treat the people contrary to the fa …
Legalism
• Motivating the Laws
– ‘the enrichment of the state and the
strengthening of its military capacity.’
– Diversity of opinion was damaging – ban it.
– Lack of standards in culture was damaging –
create such standards
Legalism
• Offices are created hierarchically
– There are objective criteria for the performance of
each office
– Each level applies reward/punishment to the
lower level for success/failure to perform
• Humans are self-serving and prone to evil; they are NOT naturally
good
• Therefore, no one can really be trusted
• A ruler should never reveal his true intentions
• There are no absolute truths or standards
• Laws should reflect the conditions of a given time, and can change
as needed
• But, a law should not be questioned once implemented
• Fear instills conformity; even the smallest of infractions requires
severe punishment
• Society’s basic needs are met by FARMERS and SOLDIERS; these are
valued occupations. All others are lesser jobs (Why?)
• Rival ideas should not be expressed (Qin carried out the 1st known
book-burning; Confucianist scholars were killed under them)
Legalism
• Legalism stresses the strength of the leader
• No value in debate or opinion
• No laws should limit the rulers’ actions
– Han Feizi imprisoned and forced to drink poison in
233 B.C.
Education
• Scholars and books that disagreed with
Legalists beliefs were destroyed.
• Legalists wanted people to think the same way
and not gain too much knowledge.
• The legalist government would burn books
that were not in favor of the way they wanted
their government to run.
Country
• There were always ten things in a country;
– Odes and History
– Rites and Music
– Virtue and Cultivation
– Benevolence and Integrity
– Sophistry and Intelligence
• Overall the Legalist run towns were very
united with everything that they needed.
Laws
• The Legalist people survived in laws that
forced them to work on government projects
and punished those with strict punishment.
• The people are there to serve the
government. The government comes before
everything in a Legalist society.
• Duties were never ignored, and everything got
done.
Household
• Family came second to obeying the laws.
One's duty was to turn his or her family
members into the government if one of their
family members broke a law.
• Families were overall controlled and organized
Legalism
•
Was not forgiven for its atrocities
Legacy of Legalism
• Many feudal rulers of China like Shi Huangdi,
chose Legalism as the most effective way to
keep order.
• Shi’s laws were so cruel that later generations
despised Legalism.
• Yet, Legalist ideas survived in laws that forced
people to work on government projects and
punished those who slacked from their duties.
Legacy of Legalism
•
•
•
•
Unified China under the Qin (Ch’in) Dynasty
First major philosophy of this time to do so
Qin Dynasty only lasted 14 years
Legalism was brutally applied--forced labor, harsh
taxes, ruthless penalties-- and Chinese always looked
on it with distaste from a historical perspective
• Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism as a reaction to
Legalism
• Ideas of equality under the law, meritocracy did take
root later
Summary of the 3 Chinese
Philosophies
Confucianism --> Moral order in society.
Daoism --> Freedom for individuals and
less govt. to avoid uniformity and
conformity.
Legalism --> Rule by harsh law & order.
Government
For Taoists …
Best government governs least! Government is
unnatural
For Confucianists …
Best government rules through educated
officials and benevolent emperor
For Legalists …
Best government is through powerful ruler who
uses fear and authority
Chinese Buddhism
The Silk Road
•In the second century bce,
caravans began traveling a
4,000 mile route linking
Southeast Asia with the
West.
• Silk carried along this
route made its way to Rome
• In both directions, various
political, social, religious,
and artistic ideas flowed.
Princes from Central Asian states in
Lamentation, Dunhuang Cave 158.
This painting not only depicts their
devotions to Buddha, but also
accurately presents the appearances,
garments and customs of different
nations along the Silk Road and the
history of cultural exchange between
them.
The Spread of Buddhism
Buddhism Arrives in China
• Buddhism was founded by
an Indian prince, who
called himself the Buddha.
• The Buddha or
“Enlightened One” taught
his people about Four
Noble Truths, and an
Eightfold Path.
• He also taught the people
to use meditation.
The Four Noble Truths
• Suffering is part of human life.
• Suffering is caused by people’s
desires for pleasure and material
things. (This results in an endless
cycle of rebirths or reincarnation.)
• Overcoming desires during lifetime
eventually brings end to this cycle
and suffering.
• Desires can be overcome by
following the Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path
• In order to eliminate their desires for worldly things, and thus
end the cycle of rebirths, the Buddha taught his people to
follow eight principals:
– Know the truth
– Resist evil
– Say nothing hurtful
– Respect life
– Free the mind from evil
– Work in service to others
– Resist evil
– Practice meditation
Nirvana
• By following the eightfold
path, and avoiding evil
extremes, the Buddha
taught that an individual
could achieve nirvana.
• He taught that nirvana,
which in their language
meant to blow out a
candle, was a state of nonexistence.
In Harmony with Universe
• Nirvana was not a place,
like heaven, but rather an
actual state of nonexistence.
• When someone reached
nirvana, their soul was in
harmony with the
universe, and they would
cease to exist.
Buddhism came to China along the Silk Roads
from India where it was started in the 5th
century BCE by Siddhartha Gautama.
It brought with it several symbols shown in
many Buddhist images.
The most familiar is the lotus flower, a symbol of
purity, renunciation and divinity.
Buddha is often shown sitting on a lotus.
Another important symbol is the Golden Wheel.
The wheel represents motion, continuity and
change, forever moving onwards like the wheel
of heaven.
The eight spokes point in the eight directions
and symbolize Buddha’s Eightfold Path: right
understanding, right thought, right speech, right
action, right livelihood, right effort, right
mindfulness, and right concentration.
• Two missionaries wrote "The Sutra
of forty-two sections spoken by the
Buddha" to provide guidance on the
ideas of Buddhism and the conduct
of monks. It is the first Buddhist text
in the Chinese language.
• Their arrival in 67 CE marks
Buddhism's official introduction in
China.
• The first documented translation of
Buddhist scriptures into Chinese
occurs in 148 CE
• Mahayana Buddhism was first
propagated into China by Kushan
Lokaksema (active ca. 164-186 C.E.),
the first translator of Mahayana
sutras into Chinese.
Chinese Buddhism
History
• Buddhism had arisen in India roughly at about the same time
as Confucius
• Long period of development before coming to China, so
theories already well-established
– Arrives in China c. 1st cent. CE
– Mahayana form influential
• Flourishes during chaotic time in China (3rd cent. CE)
• Alien to Chinese thought:
– Monasteries
– Begging
– Celibacy
Buddhism
• During the first century A.D.,
Buddhism reached China from India.
• Buddhism was one of the few foreign influences
that had a deep impact on Chinese life.
• It spread along caravan trade routes that linked
India to China.
• Later, Buddhism-and the culture of China-was
taken to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
The Appeal of Buddhism
• The Chinese found a great deal of comfort in
Buddhism.
• The three Chinese schools of thought-Confucianism,
Daoism, and Legalism-dealt with life on Earth.
• Buddhism was a religion that offered an escape from
the suffering of earthly life.
• Buddhism promised salvation for the good, those
who lived moral lives, and punishment for the
wicked.
• It stressed mercy and compassion.
• Buddhist monks and nuns built hospitals and
helped the poor.
First impression of Buddhism
• When Buddhism first reached China, many
Chinese saw it as a foreign religion.
• They could not understand the vague concept
of nirvana.
• Also, they criticized people who abandoned
their families to become monks and nuns.
• In time, Buddhism blended with Chinese beliefs and values.
Nirvana became the western Heaven, reflecting Chinese ideas
about the afterlife.
• Chinese Buddhists emphasized Confucian ideas of proper
behavior and respect for family and ancestors.
• They also absorbed Daoist views of nature because the Chinese
could accept diverse ideas.
• As a result, many Chinese followed Buddhist, Daoist, and
Confucian beliefs at the same time.
• Confucianism and Daoism were concerned with ethics and living
in harmony with nature, including the gods and spirits that were
believed to be everywhere.
• Although temples and ceremonies developed around both
schools of thought, neither Confucianism nor Daoism were a
true religion like Buddhism was.
CHINESE BUDDHISM
• Most similar to Taoism
• Occasionally persecuted by Chinese authorities– considered it
“foreign,” anti-government, anti-society, anti-family,
revolutionary—worried that its ideas undermined Confucian
system based on hierarchy of respect
• Claimed Buddhist monks were parasites as they did not
produce for society
• On other hand, some Buddhists played important roles in
governing; its meditative ways and abstract thought appealed
to many educated elites
Chinese Buddhism
The Way of Chinese Buddhism is a middle
way: a path (8-fold) away from “suffering”
(dukkha) and toward abiding joy (nirvana).
Brought to China from India, the middle way,
as a general practice, sought to avoid the
pitfalls of living according to false views (false
dichotomies)...
One False Dichotomy that Gave Rise to the
Need for a Middle Way
Essentialism
Materialism
Brahman: “God”
There is no God
Atman: “The Soul”
There is no Soul
The Divine is the only true
or Ultimate Reality:
Literally, there is nothing but
material realities:
Unchanging
Ever-changing unto death
Eternal (no beginning or
end); Permanent
Finite (with beginning and
end); Impermanent
With, and without
Qualities
Always with (material)
qualities only
The Middle Way: Philosophically
Conceived
“Reality” is Neither “Essential” Nor “Material”
(as Traditionally Conceived)
There is no God: But there is Divinity (the Promise of Abiding Joy)
There is no Soul: But there is Spirituality (Dependent Origination)
“Spiritual” and “Material Realities” are:
Neither only Ever-changing, nor only Finite, ending in Death
All Qualities simply cannot be captured by the Traditional
Essentialist/Materialist -- Dichotomy
Guanyin
• Guanyin is the Chinese name for the
Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara.
• She is the Bodhisattva of
Compassion as venerated by East
Asian Buddhists.
• Guanyin and the 1000 arms: One
Buddhist legend presents Guan Yin
as vowing to never rest until she had
freed all sentient beings from
samsara, reincarnation. Despite
strenuous effort, she realized that
still many unhappy beings were yet
to be saved. After struggling to
comprehend the needs of so many,
she attempted to reach out to all
those who needed aid, but found
that her two arms shattered into
pieces. Amitabha came to her aid
and appointed her a thousand arms
with which to aid the many.