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According to Dennett: Aware1-the ability to talk about a fact, wish, proposition (P) Aware2-behave in a manner that an observer would claim you were taking P into account The Theory of Repressed Memory Triple Threat Sheila Krogh-Jespersen Alicia Briganti Victoria Cox Outline: Repression and Awareness Negative Views Inhibition Repression a.k.a. Motivated Forgetting Motivated Non-Learning Motivated Overwriting of Memories Retrieval Failures vehicles According to Dennett: Aware1-the ability to talk about a fact, wish, proposition (P) Aware2-behave in a manner that an observer would claim you were taking P into account car Illustrations: Automated Driving/Animals/SelfRegulating Machines Sperling’s (1960) T-scope-presents the difference in perception (aware2) and verbalization (aware1) bus Visual Input: Weiskrantz (1980)- lack of awareness1 of the visual input, yet could still recognize pictures Sakheim et al (1979)-effect of hypnotism Sperry (1968) and Gazzaniga(1970)-split brain awareness train Unconscious Processes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Fast, routine information processing Physiological reflexes “Slip of the tongue” “Tics” Behavior tendencies Changing behaviors/attitudes What influences behavior? airplane What about Retrieval Failures? “They [memories] are like “responses” waiting for the right “stimulus” to release them” Free Association and Accuracy Issues Bicycle Posthypnotic Amnesia: Have awareness2 without awareness1 Bitterman & Marcuse (1945)-no memory, yet enhanced GSR Obligatory vs. Optional Memory Performance motorcycle “True Amnesia”: 2/3 of the adult population have no response posthypnotic amnesia suggestions to Spanos & Bodorik (1977)-about 40- to 60% of suggested amnesia subjects could be broken What about the 1/6 of the population who show “true amnesia”? boat Nonrecaller Categories: 1. Mouths Locked Shut (conscious) 2. Lack of Motivation (conscious) 3. Distracting Thoughts (conscious) 4. “Really Trying” (????????) Roller skates Bowers’ Final Thoughts: Post-hypnotic amnesia may not be the best model for repression Does Gordon Bower Believe in Repression? moped WARNING: “The concept of repression has not been validated with experimental research and its use may be hazardous to the accurate interpretation of clinical behavior.” Fruits Holmes’ Take on 60 Years of Research Has the role of “critic” at the conference on “Repression, Dissociation, and the Warding off of Conflictual Cognitive Contents” Claims there is no reliable evidence in support of repression. (Holmes, 1974) Apple ELEMENTS OF REPRESSION 1. “Repression is the selective forgetting of materials that cause the individual pain” 2. “Repression is not under voluntary control” 3. “Repressed material is not lost but instead is stored in the unconscious and can be returned to consciousness if the anxiety that is associated with the memory is removed” (Freud [1915] 1957) Kiwi DIFFERENTIAL RECALL: PLEASANT vs. UNPLEASANT EXPERIENCES Early claim: unpleasant events are less likely to be recalled; therefore, they are being repressed (Jerslid, 1931; Meltzer, 1931; Stagner, 1931) Intensity of affect Alternative explanation: Reduced recall of unpleasant experiences is due to a decline in the affective intensity over time associated with the experience, rather than to repression. (Holmes, 1970) Strawberry DIARY STUDY Measured differential recall and changes in affect for pleasant and unpleasant experiences. Affective intensity of unpleasant experiences had greater declines than pleasant experiences, and as a consequence, unpleasant experiences were less likely to be recalled. Why the decline in intensity of unpleasant experiences? Peach TWO EXPLANATIONS The experience may not have been as bad as the subject thought at the time of the experience, or it did not result in the severe consequences that were expected. Since people think more about intense experiences than neutral ones, and repeated exposure results in more positive attitudes toward the experience, attention given to negative experiences results in their becoming less unpleasant and less intense. Orange DIFFERENTIAL RECALL: COMPLETED AND INCOMPLETED TASKS Some tasks completed, some not Incompleted tasks = high stress Stress = repression Evidence for repression? Cantaloupe REPRESSING AND UNCOVERING MEMORIES Claim: Repression follows stress, but repressed material can be returned to consciousness with the removal of stress. (e.g., Zeller, 1950, 1951; Merrill, 1954) Alternative explanation: Decreased recall following stress could be due to interference rather than repression. (Holmes, 1972) Pear INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES R-S Scale (Byrne, Barry, and Nelson, 1963) Complete and Incomplete task recall paradigm and the need for achievement (Coopersmith, 1960; Weiner, 1965) Social desirability and anxiety (e.g., Davis and Schwartz, 1987; Weinberger, Schwartz, and Davidson, 1979) Grapes PERCEPTUAL DEFENSE Primary repression Stressful vs. non-stressful words (Eriksen and Pierce, 1968) Banana Where do we go from here? “Let’s Not Sweep Repression under the Rug” (Erdelyi and Goldberg, 1979) “Let’s Now Sweep Repression under the Rug” (Mischel, 1986 [534]) The Case for Inhibition Vehicles Question and Hypothesis What mechanisms permit people to limit awareness of interfering memories? Executive control mechanisms→ Response-override situations → Inhibitory processes (Levy and Anderson 2002) Car Evidence of inhibitory processes Two memory situations: Need for selection during retrieval Need to stop retrieval Bus Selective Memory Retrieval Inhibitory control might be recruited to override competition so that a target trace can be retrieved. Demonstrated by the ‘retrieval practice paradigm’ Train retrieval practice paradigm *percent items recalled correctly on final cued recall test Airplane Stopping retrieval: think-nothink Subjects studied pairs of weakly related words Recall and say aloud the response word Or avoid thinking of the response word ♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦ ♦♦♦ Recall of “no-think” words was impaired compared to baseline pairs and was independent of original vs. novel cue. Anderson & Green 2001 Bicycle Hmmm… Do these results provide a mechanistic basis for the voluntary form of repression proposed by Freud? Actively inhibited? What else could be at work other than inhibitory processes? Motorcycle Kihlstom’s Response Repression operates unconsciously on threatening mental contents. Repressed material continues to affect the person’s experience Repressed memories have to be recoverable (Kihlstrom 2002) Boat Reply from Anderson and Levy Evaluation of Freudian theory no our goal – but Freud did write about repression in terms that sometimes allow for active intentional process. After only 1 minute of active suppression, subjects were up to 10% worse at recalling these memories (Anderson & Levy 2002) Roller Skates Reply… With time and repeated effort, trying to keep an unwanted memory out of awareness does render that memory less accessible. (Anderson & Levy 2002) Moped Smith et.al. finds… Filler items reduced the recall of critical items as much as 63% on a free recall test Appropriate cues produced nearly complete recovery on a cued recall test Forgetting effect does not appear to involve inhibition Same results for emotional, memorable and distinctive words