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Learning and
Memory
Chapter 3
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Canada
The Learning Process
• Products as reminders of life experiences
• Products + memory = brand equity/loyalty
• Learning: a relatively permanent change in
behaviour caused by experience
– Incidental learning
– Ongoing process
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Behavioural Learning Theories
• Learning = responses to external events
– “Black box”
– Observable behaviour
• Classical conditioning and instrumental
conditioning
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3-3
Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov
• CS + UCS = response
– Over time: CS =
response
• Brand names as CS
– Credit card as CS
• Music, humour, imagery
• CS first, then UCS
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3-4
Classical Conditioning (Cont’d)
• Repetition of exposure
– Type of medium used
– Prevent decay
– Extinction
• Izod Lacoste crocodile
on baby clothes
– Beware of…
• Advertising wearout
• Frequent product
encounters
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3-5
Classical Conditioning (Cont’d)
• Stimulus Generalization
– Halo effect
• “Piggybacking” strategy
• Masked branding
– Family branding, product line extensions,
licensing, look-alike packaging
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Discussion
• Identify some important characteristics of
a product with a well-known brand name.
– Based on these attributes, generate a list of
possible brand extension or licensing
opportunities, as well as some others that
would most likely not be accepted by
consumers.
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3-7
Classical Conditioning (Cont’d)
• Stimulus Discrimination
– Brand positioning
• Unique attributes of brand
– Anti-Counterfeiting Coalition combats
“knockoffs”
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Marketing Applications of Classical
Conditioning
• Transferred meaning can be conditioned
by fairly simple associations
• Goal is to create brand equity
– Repetition (H&R Block)
– Product Associations
– Backward Conditioning
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Applications of Stimulus
Generalization
•
•
•
•
Family branding
Product line extensions
Licensing
Look-a-like packaging
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Instrumental Conditioning
• Behaviours = positive outcomes or
negative outcomes
– Deliberate behaviour to obtain a goal
• Positive reinforcement
– Frequency marketing, thank you letters,
rebates, follow-up phone calls
• Negative reinforcement
• Punishment
• Extinction
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Instrumental Conditioning (Cont’d)
• Reinforcement schedules include…
– Fixed-interval (seasonal sales)
– Variable-interval (secret shoppers)
– Fixed-ratio (frequent flyer programs)
– Variable-ratio (slot machines)
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Four Types of Learning Outcomes
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Applications of Instrumental
Conditioning Principles
• Reinforcement of
consumption (thank
you letters)
• Frequency marketing
– Dave Phillips (Pudding
Guy)
– Shell Full-Service
Station
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Cognitive Learning Theory
• Internal mental processes
• People = problem solvers
• Active use of information to master
environment
– Conscious hypotheses
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Canada
3-15
Applications of Cognitive Learning
Principles
• Perfume ad where woman receives
positive reinforcement for using the
product
• Celebrity image depends on their social
attractiveness
– Physical appearance
– Expertise
– Similarity to the evaluator
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Canada
3-16
Observational Learning
• We watch others and note reinforcements
they receive for behaviours
– Vicarious learning
– Socially desirable models/celebrities who use
or do not use their products
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3-17
Observational Learning (Cont’d)
• Modeling: imitating others’ behaviour
– Bobo doll experiment
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Role of Memory in Learning
• Memory: acquiring information and storing
it over time so that it will be available when
needed
• Information-processing approach
– Mind = computer and data = input/output
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Encoding
• The way we encode
information can help us
retain it later
– Sensory meaning
– Semantic meaning
– Personal relevance
• Episodic/flashbulb
memories
• Product information
conveyed as a narrative
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Memory Systems
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Chunking
• Informational unit in short-term memory
(STM)
– Brand name
– Area code of telephone number
– Optimal size for retrieval
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Associative Networks
• Activation models of memory
– Associative network of related information
• Knowledge structures of interconnected nodes
• Hierarchical processing model
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Associative Networks (Cont’d)
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Spreading Activation
• As one node is activated, other nodes
associated with it also begin to be
triggered
• Meaning types of associated nodes:
– Brand-specific
– Ad-specific
– Brand identification
– Product category
– Evaluative reactions
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Levels of Knowledge
• Individual nodes = meaning concepts
• Two (or more) connected nodes =
proposition (complex meaning)
• Two or more propositions = schema
– We encode info that is consistent with an
existing schema more readily
– Service scripts
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Retrieval for Purchase Decisions
• Retrieving information often requires
appropriate factors and cues:
– Physiological factors
– Situational factors
• Consumer attention; pioneering brand; descriptive
brand names
– Viewing environment (continuous activity;
commercial order in sequence)
– Post-experience advertising effects
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Retrieval for Purchase Decisions
(Cont’d)
• Appropriate factors/cues for retrieval
(cont’d):
– State-dependent retrieval/mood congruence
effect
– Familiarity
– Salience/von Restorff Effect (mystery ads)
– Visual memory vs. verbal memory
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Factors Influencing Forgetting
• Decay
• Interference
– Retroactive vs. proactive
• Part-list cueing effect
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Products as Memory Markers
• Furniture, visual art, and photos call forth
memories of the past
• Autobiographical memories
– The marketing power of nostalgia
– Retro brand
– Nostalgia index
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Measuring Memory for
Marketing Stimuli
• Recognition vs. recall
• The Starch Test
• Problems with memory measures
– Response biases
– Memory lapses
– Memory for facts vs. feelings
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Discussion
• In his 2005 book Blink: The Power of Thinking
Without Thinking, author Malcolm Gladwell
argues that hallowed marketing research
techniques like focus groups aren’t effective
because we usually react to products quickly
and without much conscious thought so it’s
better just to solicit consumers’ first impressions
rather than getting them to think at length about
why they buy.
– What’s your position on this issue?
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