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Dynamics of Prokaryotic Growth Chapter 4 Principles of Bacterial Growth • Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission – One cell divides into two • Two into four etc. – Cell growth is exponential • Doubling of population with each cell division Generation time • Time it takes for population to double • a.k.a doubling time • Varies among species Principles of Bacterial Growth • Growth can be calculated – Nt = N0 x 2n • • • • (Nt ) number of cells in population right now (N0 ) original number of cells in the population (n) number of divisions Example – N0 = 10 cells in original population – n = 12 » 4 hours assuming 20 minute generation time – Nt = 10 x 212 – Nt = 10 x 4,096 – Nt = 40,960 Bacterial Growth in Nature • Conditions in nature have profound effect on microbial growth – Cells sense changing environment Biofilm layer • Synthesize compounds useful for growth • Cells produce multicellular associations to increase survivability Big question: how applicable is growing these things in lab if they do different things in nature. – Example » Biofilms » Slime layers Bacterial Growth in Nature • Biofilm – Formation begins when planktonic bacteria attach to surfaces • Other bacteria attach and grow on initial layer – Has characteristic architecture • Contains open channels for movement of nutrients and waste – Cells within biofilms can cause disease • Treatment becomes difficult – Architecture resists immune response and antimicrobials – Bioremediation is beneficial use of biofilm • Add nutrients - biostimulation • Add other bacteria - bioaugmentation Bacterial Growth in Nature • Interactions of mixed microbial communities – Prokaryotes live in mixed communities • Many interactions are cooperative – Waste of one organism nutrient for another • Some cells compete for nutrient – Synthesize toxic substance to inhibit growth of competitors Obtaining Pure Culture • Pure culture defined as population of cells derived from single cell – All cells genetically identical • Cells grown in pure culture to study functions of specific species • Pure culture obtained using special techniques – Aseptic technique -minimizes potential contamination • Cells grown on culture media – Can be broth (liquid) or solid form Obtaining Pure Culture • Culture media can be liquid or solid – Liquid is broth media • Used for growing large numbers of bacteria – Solid media is broth media with addition of agar • Agar marine algae extract • Liquefies at temperatures above 95°C • Solidifies at 45°C – Remains solid at room temperature and body temperature – Bacteria grow in colonies on solid media surface • All cells in colony descend from single cell • Approximately 1 million cells produce 1 visible colony Obtaining Pure Culture • Streak-plate method – Simplest and most commonly used in bacterial isolation – Object is to reduce number of cells being spread • Solid surface dilution • Each successive spread decreases number of cells per streak • Multiple techniques Bacterial Growth in Laboratory Conditions • Cells in laboratory grown in closed or batch system – No new input of nutrient and no release of waste • Population of cells increase in predictable fashion – Follows a pattern called growth curve Bacterial Growth in Laboratory Conditions • The Growth Curve – Characterized by five distinct stages especially in broths • Lag stage • Exponential or log stage • Stationary stage • Death stage • Phase of prolonged decline Bacterial Growth in Laboratory Conditions • Lag phase – Number of cells does not increase – Cells prepare for growth • “tooling up” • Log phase – Period of exponential growth • Doubling of population with each generation – Produce primary metabolites • Compounds required for growth – Late log phase • Endospores • Synthesize secondary metabolites – Used to enhance survival – Antibiotics Bacterial Growth in Laboratory Conditions • Stationary phase – Overall population remains relatively stable • Cells exhausted nutrients • Cell growth = cell death – Dying cell supply metabolites for replicating cells • Death phase – Total number of viable cells decreases • Decrease at constant rate – Death is exponential • Much slower rate than growth Bacterial Growth in Laboratory Conditions • Phase of prolonged decline – Once nearly 99% of all cells dead, remaining cells enter prolonged decline – Marked by very gradual decrease in viable population – Phase may last months or years – Most fit cells survive • Each new cell more fit than previous • Evolution – change in genetics over time World population Bacterial Growth in Laboratory Conditions • Colony growth on solid medium – In colony, cells eventually compete for resources – Position within colony determines resource availability • Cells on edge of colony have little competition and significant oxygen stores • Cells in the middle of colony have high cell density – Leads to increased competition and decreased availability of oxygen Chemostats allow for continuous growth Environmental Factors on Growth • As group, prokaryotes inhabit nearly all environments – Some live in “comfortable” habitats – Some live in harsh environments • Most of these are termed extremophiles and belong to domain Archaea • Major conditions that influence growth – – – – Temperature Oxygen pH Water availability Environmental Factors on Growth • Temperature – Each species has well defined temperature range • Within range lies optimum growth temperature – Prokaryotes divided into 5 categories • Psychrophile – Optimum temperature -5°C to 15°C • Found in Arctic and Antarctic regions • Psychrotroph – 20°C to 30°C • Important in food spoilage • Mesophile – 25°C to 45°C • More common • Disease causing • Thermophiles – 45°C to 70°C • Common in hot springs • Hyperthermophiles – 70°C to 110°C • Usually members of Archaea • Found in hydrothermal vents Psychro = “cold” Environmental Factors on Growth • Oxygen – Prokaryotes divided based on oxygen requirements • Obligate aerobes – Absolute requirement for oxygen » Use for energy production • Facultative anaerobes – Grow better with oxygen » Use fermentation in absence of oxygen • Microaerophiles – Require oxygen in lower concentrations » Higher concentration inhibitory • Obligate anaerobes – No multiplication in presence of oxygen » May cause death • Aerotolerant anaerobes – Indifferent to oxygen, grow with or without » Do not use oxygen to produce energy Oxygen Environmental Factors on Growth • pH – Bacteria survive within pH range – Neutrophiles • Multiply between pH of 5 to 8 – Maintain optimum near neutral – Acidophiles • Thrive at pH below 5.5 – Maintains neutral internal pH, pumping out protons (H+) – Alkalophiles • Grow at pH above 8.5 – Maintain neutral internal pH through sodium ion exchange » Exchange sodium ion for external protons Environmental Factors on Growth • Water availability – All microorganisms require water for growth – Water not available in all environments • In high salt environments – Bacteria increase internal solute concentration » Synthesize small organic molecules – Osmotolerant bacteria tolerate high salt environments – Halophiles - bacteria that require high salt for cell growth termed Nutritional Factors on Growth • Growth of prokaryotes depends on nutritional factors as well as physical environment • Main factors to be considered are: – Required elements – Growth factors – Energy sources – Nutritional diversity Nutritional Factors on Growth • Required elements – Major elements • Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium and iron – Essential components for macromolecules – Organisms classified based on carbon usage • Heterotrophs – Use organic carbon as nutrient source • Autotrophs – Use inorganic carbon (CO2) as carbon source – Trace elements • Cobalt, zinc, copper, molybdenum and manganese – Required in minute amounts Nutritional Factors on Growth • Growth factors – Some bacteria cannot synthesize some cell constituents • These must be added to growth environment – Organisms can display wide variety of factor requirements • Some need very few while others require many – These termed fastidious Nutritional Factors on Growth • Energy Sources – Organisms derive energy from sunlight or chemical compounds • Phototrophs – Derive energy from sunlight • Chemotrophs – Derive energy from chemical compounds – Organisms often grouped according to energy source Nutritional Factors on Growth • Nutritional Diversity – Organisms thrive due to their ability to use diverse sources of carbon and energy – Photoautotrophs • Use sunlight and atmospheric carbon (CO2) as carbon source – Called primary producers (Plants) – Chemoautotrophs • a.k.a chemolithoautotrophs or chemolitotrophs • Use inorganic compounds for energy and use CO2 as carbon source – Photoheterotrophs • Energy from sunlight, carbon from organic compounds – Chemoheterotrophs • a.k.a chemoorganoheterotrophs or chemoorganotrophs • Use organic compounds for energy and carbon source Laboratory Cultivation • Knowing environmental and nutritional factors makes it possible to cultivate organisms in the laboratory • Organisms are grown on culture media – complex media – chemically defined media Laboratory Cultivation • Complex media – Contains a variety of ingredients – There is no exact chemical formula for ingredients • Can be highly variable – Examples include • Nutrient broth • Blood agar • Chocolate agar Laboratory Cultivation • Chemically defined media – Composed of precise amounts of pure chemical – Generally not practical for routine laboratory use • Invaluable in research – Each batch is chemically identical » Does not introduce experimental variable Laboratory Cultivation • Special types of culture media – Used to detect or isolate particular organisms – Are divided into selective and differential media Laboratory Cultivation • Selective media – Inhibit the growth of unwanted organisms • Allow only sought after organisms to grow – Example • Thayer-Martin agar - antibiotics – For isolation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae • MacConkey agar – crystal violet and bile salts – For isolation of Gram negative bacteria of intestine Laboratory Cultivation • Differential media – Contains substance that bacteria change in recognizable way – Example • Blood agar – Certain bacteria produce hemolysin to break down RBC » Hemolysis • MacConkey agar – Contains pH indicator to identify bacteria that produce acid Laboratory Cultivation • Providing appropriate atmospheric conditions • Bacteria can be grouped by oxygen requirement – Capnophile – Microaerophile – Anaerobe Laboratory Cultivation • Capnophile – Require increased CO2 – Achieve higher CO2 concentrations via • Candle jar • CO2 incubator • Microaerophile – Require higher CO2 than capnophile – Incubated in gastight jar • Chemical packet generates hydrogen and CO2 Laboratory Cultivation • Anaerobe – Die in the presence of oxygen • Even if exposed for short period of time – Incubated in anaerobe jar • Chemical reaction converts atmospheric oxygen to water • Organisms must be able to tolerate oxygen for brief period – Reducing agents in media achieve anaerobic environment • Agents react with oxygen to eliminate it • Sodium thyoglycolate – Anaerobic chamber also used for cultivation Detecting Bacterial Growth • Variety of techniques to determine growth – Numbers of cells – Total mass – Detection of cellular products Detecting Bacterial Growth • Direct cell count – Useful in determining total number of cells – Does not distinguish between living and dead cells – Methods include • Direct microscopic count • Use of cell counting instruments Detecting Bacterial Growth • Direct microscopic count – One of the most rapid methods – Number is measured in a known volume – Liquid dispensed in specialized slide • Counting chamber – Viewed under microscope – Cells counted – Limitation • Must have at least 10 million cells per mL to gain accurate estimate Detecting Bacterial Growth • Cell counting instruments – Count cells in suspension – Cells pass counter in single file – Measure changes in environment • Coulter counter – Detects changes in electrical resistance • Flow cytometer – Measures laser light Detecting Bacterial Growth • Viable cell count – Used to quantify living cells • Cells able to multiply – Valuable in monitoring bacterial growth • Often used when cell counts are too low for other methods – Methods include • Plate counts • Membrane filtration • Most probable numbers Detecting Bacterial Growth • Plate counts – Measures viable cells growing on solid culture media – Count based on assumption that one cell gives rise to one colony • Number of colonies = number of cells in sample – Ideal number to count • between 30 and 300 colonies – Sample normally diluted in 10-fold increments – Plate count methods • pour-plates • spread-plates methods Detecting Bacterial Growth • Membrane filtration – Used with relatively low numbers – Known volume of liquid passed through membrane filter • Filter pore size retains organism – Filter is placed on appropriate growth medium and incubated – Cells are counted Detecting Bacterial Growth • Most probable numbers (MPN) – Statistical assay – Series of dilution sets created • Each set inoculated with 10fold less sample than previous set – Sets incubated and results noted • Results compared to MPN table – Table gives statistical estimation of cell concentration Detecting Bacterial Growth • Biomass measurement – Cell mass can be determined via • Turbidity • Total weight • Amounts of cellular chemical constituents Detecting Bacterial Growth • Turbidity – Measures with spectrophotometer • Measures light transmitted through sample – Measurement is inversely proportional to cell concentration » Must be used in conjunction with other test once to determine cell numbers – Limitation • Must have high number of cells Detecting Bacterial Growth • Total Weight – Tedious and time consuming • Not routinely used • Useful in measuring filamentous organisms – Wet weight • Cells centrifuged down and liquid growth medium removed • Packed cells weighed – Dry weight • Packed cells allowed to dry at 100°C 8 to 12 hours • Cells weighed Detecting Bacterial Growth • Detecting cell products – Acid production • pH indicator detects acids that result from sugar breakdown – Gas production • Gas production monitored using Durham tube – Tube traps gas produced by bacteria – ATP • Presence of ATP detected by use of luciferase – Enzyme catalyzes ATP dependent reaction » If reaction occurs ATP present bacteria present