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FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
The Principles of
Water Disinfection by
Copper / Silver
Ionization
Introduction
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
For thousands of years, man has attempted to disinfect water without the use
of hazardous chemicals. Algae, bacteria and viruses in water cause problems
not only in drinking water, but in commercial uses also.
One of the means of water disinfection that has been used is that of
copper/silver ionization.
ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc. is the first to perfect the process of
copper/silver ionization in various applications.
This presentation is broken up into five chapters:
Chapter one will take a look a the definition of ionization.
Chapter two will review the history of ionization.
Chapter three will explain how the ClearWater Purification System has
perfected the process of copper/silver ionization.
Chapter four will give a detailed look at how copper/silver ionization
actually disinfects the water.
Chapter five will look into the various applications of copper/silver
ionization.
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Chapter 1 - Ionization
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc. uses copper/silver ionization as the
basis for its purification of water. To get a better idea of this, lets first look into
the definition of an “ion” and “ionization”.
An “ion” is an atom or radical (group of atoms) which carries an electrical
charge as the result of having lost or gained electrons. The atom’s charge is
negative if it has an extra electron and positive if it is short an electron. A
positively charged ion is called a “cation”, while a negatively charged ion is
called an “anion”. An ion often has entirely different properties than the
element (atom) from which it was formed.
“Ionization” is the process in which a chemical combination breaks up into
simpler electrically charged components (individual atoms or groups of atoms)
called ions. The ionization process is related to the gaining or losing of
electrons causing the atoms or group of atoms to become electrically charged.
ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc. uses copper and silver as the
basis for its technology, thus copper/silver ionization is the electronic
release of copper and silver ions.
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Chapter 1 - Ionization
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Properties of Copper and Silver
Copper is atomic number 29 in the Periodic Table of Elements. An atom of
copper has 29 protons. The atomic weight is 63.54 and the atomic symbol is Cu.
Cu
Copper is in column IB of the Periodic Table of Elements, above Silver,
whose atomic symbol is Ag.
Ag
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Chapter 1 - Ionization
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Elements in the same column have some similar properties. Copper has a
Moh’s hardness of 2.5 to 3.0, which is harder than a fingernail but softer than
a steel pocketknife. The surface has a metallic luster. With a specific gravity
of 8.2 (based on a density of 8.2 grams per cubic centimeter, g/cm3), it is far
denser than water with a specific gravity of 1.
Silver is below copper in column IB, is far denser at 19. Silver is the #1
mineral to conduct electricity where copper is #2.
Copper is an excellent conductor of heat, making it an important metal in
cookware, refrigerators and radiators. Copper is also resistant to corrosion-it will not rust. The melting point of copper is 1083.4oC. Copper is required
in animal metabolism. Young children require approximately 0.1 mg/day of
copper for normal growth and the daily requirements for adults is about 2
mg/day.
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Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Various forms of copper, silver, copper/silver
ionization has been used for thousands of years to
disinfect water.
The ancient Greeks were the first to discover the
sanitizing power of copper.
The Egyptians kept their water in silver
containers to prevent contamination.
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Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Early American pioneers moving west across the continent put copper and
silver coins in large wooden water casks to provide them with safe drinking
water on their long voyage. When the wagons rolled, the agitation caused
the coins to discharge ions in the water. The copper ions killed algae and the
silver ions killed bacteria and viruses.
Today, copper is recognized as one of the best algaecides killers known to
man. Oxides and sulfates of copper are used for pesticides, algaecides and
fungicides. Copper is frequently incorporated into paints and wood
preservatives to inhibit growth of algae and invertebrate organisms.
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Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Silver has a long history as a bacterial and
virus killer. Cryus the Greek, king of Prussia,
carried water in silver flagons on his many
military expeditions to keep water fresh.
During the Plague-ridden Middle Ages,
mothers knew to place a silver spoon in an
infant’s mouth to ward off disease.
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Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Silver dollars have been used to keep milk from spoiling.
Silver foil was used to cover wounds and surgical lesions to prevent
infection and promote the healing process.
Today, silver is the leading method used for treatment of burn victims.
Bacteria multiplies very rapidly on burn areas.
Drops of silver nitrate solution are applied to the eyes of newborn babies
to prevent blindness due to gonorrheal infection.
Activated carbon filters for drinking water
purification impregnate silver in the filters to inhibit
the growth of bacteria that can build up in them.
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Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Silver is used to fill cavities in teeth
and helps prevent further decay.
Today, sliver purifiers are used in
about half the world’s airlines and
in over 1,000 passenger ships
It was NASA that harnessed what nature already knew and designed an
ionization system for their Apollo flights. The Johnson Space Center
developed an electrolytic silver ion generator only slightly larger than a
cigarette pack and weighing only 9 ounces.
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Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
This small ionizer required minimal power and no astronaut monitoring--a
critical factor to consider when in space. Mounted at various locations in the
potable water supply and waste water systems, the ionizer would dispense
silver ions into the water to kill bacteria and viruses.
In 1962, silver was approved for use in drinking water by the U.S.
Public Health Service.
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Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Today, the U.S. EPA allows 1.3 ppm copper and 100 ppb (parts per billion) of
silver in the drinking water. The ClearWater Purifier only uses about 1/5th
of these totals.
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Chapter 3 - The ClearWater Purification System
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
The ClearWater Purification System
consists of a state of the art,
microprocessor control box and a
scientifically designed set of electrodes
comprised of copper and silver.
Currently, ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc.
manufactures 37 different models to handle any
amount of water. Most of the systems can work on
fresh or salt water with no adjustments required.
The control box works by generating a precise, low voltage, DC current at
milliamp levels to the electrodes. These electrodes consist of a metal-plated
cathode and a metal-plated anode. The metals consist of copper and silver.
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Chapter 3 - The ClearWater Purification System
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
The percentage of silver versus copper varies on the application. A swimming
pool unit requires only 1% of the electrodes to consist of silver, while cooling
towers and hospital water disinfection requires up to 20% silver.
The electrodes are housed in a flow cell chamber to allow easy access to
them. The electrodes may need occasional cleaning and need to be
replaced every year or two.
The flow cell chambers vary between the residential and commercial units.
The residential unit includes a black flow-cell tee that the electrodes screw
into. The electrodes are secured in a clear bowl that can be removed
without any tools and installed without Teflon tape.
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Chapter 3 - The ClearWater Purification System
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
The flow cell is installed on the return line on swimming pools after the pump
and either before or after the filter.
On other applications, the flow cell can be installed on the incoming line as
the water enters the building.
Commercial units have the option of two sizes of tees - 3 in. or 4 in. There is
a clear extension coming out of the tee that allows full view of the electrodes.
As water is passed through the chamber, water flows past the electrodes
where the control box sends a low voltage DC (direct current) charge to the
electrodes. As the current moves, it produces metal ions courtesy of the
copper and silver plating.
The control box is a micro-processor that releases a controllable low voltage
DC charge to the electrodes that causes some of the outermost atoms to
lose an electron, thus becoming positive ions. As they attempt to flow across
from one electrode to another, the flow of the water causes many of the ions
to be released into the water where the copper ions kill algae and the silver
ions kill bacteria and viruses.
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Chapter 3 - The ClearWater Purification System
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
To control the amount of ions to be released into the
water, simply turn the control knob on the
microprocessor clockwise to increase the amount or
counterclockwise to lower the amount. A digital readout
in milliamp levels tells you the exact charge being
applied to the electrodes. This can vary due to TDS
levels (total dissolved solids) or conductivity of the water
and wear & tear of the electrodes.
The charge or polarity switches back and forth between the two electrodes
bars to prevent plating of the cathode - or buildup of scale and copper plating.
ClearWater’s unit changes the polarity every 5 minutes. This polarity change
also allows for an even wear and tear on the electrodes. The electrodes are
both identical in composition.
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Chapter 3 - The ClearWater Purification System
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
The actual setting of the control box is determined by the readings from a
copper-ion text kit included with the unit.
The recommended reading on the test kit should be between .20 - .30
ppm. A reading lower than that indicates that the control knob should be
turned up. A reading lower than that means the control knob should be
turned down.
Generally, the reading will stay on the same setting during the season.
The only change is when the water temperature increases - which
promotes more algae, bacteria and viruses in the water. The more algae
and bacteria, the more demand for copper ions.
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Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
When copper and silver ions are released into the water, these cationic, surface
active ions are a potent biocide. The disinfection action takes place when the
positively charged copper and silver ions form electrostatic bonds on negatively
charged areas of the microorganism cell walls.
These electrostatic bonds create
stresses which lead to distorted cell wall
permeability, minimizing the normal
intake of life sustaining nutrients.
+ Copper ion
Microorganism
Cell -
+ Silver Ion
Once inside an algae cell, copper and silver attack sulfur containing amino
acid residues in the proteins used for photosynthesis (the process of
converting light into useable food and energy). As a result, photosynthesis is
blocked and lead to the cell’s death.
If the algae cell manages to live, the reproduction process is hampered by
the presence of the copper ions and the spread of algae is held in check.
Bacteria is killed rather than suppressed.
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Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
The greatest benefit of copper/silver ionization is that the ions remain in the water
providing a residual protection. Unlike most other types of sanitizers, the copper
and silver ions remain in the water until they flocculate or form masses with algae
and bacteria and then become large enough to be removed by the filtering
equipment. When the “used” copper and silver ions are removed, the
microprocessor control box is always producing new copper and silver ions to
continuously sanitize the water.
Various studies have been done on copper/silver ionization over the years and has
proven to be lethal to hundreds of different types of algae, bacteria, and viruses.
Understanding Waterborne Pathogens
Waterborne pathogens, or disease producing microorganisms can be classified
into 3 sections: bacteria, viruses and protozoa.
Bacteria - are single-celled organisms which lack well-defined nuclear
membranes and other specialized functional cell parts and they reproduce by
cell division or spores. Bacteria may be free-living organisms or parasites.
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Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Bacteria and fungi are decomposers that break down the wastes and bodies
of dead organisms, making their components available for reuse. Bacteria
cells range from about 1 to 10 microns in length and from 0.2 to 1 micron in
width. They exist almost everywhere on earth. Despite their small size, the
total weight of all bacteria in the world exceeds that of all other organisms
combined.
Viruses - a parasitic infectious microbe composed almost entirely of protein
and protein and nucleic acids which can cause diseases in humans. Viruses
can reproduce only within living cells. They are 0.004 to 0.1 microns size
about 1/100 the size of bacteria. Viruses often survive many disinfectants
including chlorine.
Protozoa - microscopic, usually single-celled microorganisms which live in
water and are relatively larger in comparison to other microbes. Protozoa are
higher on the food chain than the bacteria that they eat. Many protozoa are
parasitic.
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Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc.'s ionizing system will kill most
bacteria, viruses and protozoa.
A sampling of waterborne pathogens that the copper/silver ionization will kill:
•Amoebae dysenteriae
•Proteus valgaris
•Bacillius subtilis
•Pseudomonas aeruginosa
•Bacillius typhosus
•Salmonella
•Cryptosporidium
•Saccharomyees cerevisiae
•Endamoeba histolytica
•Sarcina Flava
•Escherichia coli (E. coli) •Shigella dysentiniae
•Giardia lamblia
•Shigella flexneria
•Herpes virus
•Staphylococcus aureus
•HIV
•Streptococus faecalis
•Influenza A & B
•V. cholera
•Legionella pneumophila •Vaccinia virus
•Poliomyelitis virus
•Vibrio cholerae
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Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Of the list on the previous page, the most common pathogens include:
Escherichia coli (E. coli) - Is the standard test for health agencies in
swimming pool water treatment. E. coli is one of the members of the coliform
bacteria group normally found in human and animal intestines and indicative
of fecal contamination when found in water. E. coli produces large amounts
of toxins that can cause severe damage to the lining of the intestine. It can
survive for many weeks in lakes, reservoirs and municipal water. E. coli is
transmitted by fecal contamination in water and can also be transmitted
through consumption of under cooked beef, unpasteurized milk and apple
cider.
Effects include gastrointestinal disorders and in some cases, kidney
disorders. It has a four to seven day incubation period, so an infected person
would not even know for four to seven days. Sometimes, death can result
like the case in Marietta, Georgia, at a water park in the summer of 1998,
where several children became ill and one died.
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Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Salmonella - another bacteria like E. coli, there are several groups in the
salmonella group that can cause illness in humans. Transmission is through
food and water contaminated by feces of infected people and animals. Its
effects include severe dehydration and diarrhea. A small number of infected
persons will develop pains in joints, eye irritation and painful urination.
Cryptosporidium - a waterborne protozoan that forms cysts and causes
acute gastrointestinal illness in humans. It is found in unfiltered surface
water and is resistant to disinfectants such as chlorine and ultraviolet light.
The disease, which begins about seven days after infection is transmitted by
consumption of food, unhygienic diaper practices and contact with young
farm animals.
Outbreaks are related to food, drinking water and recreational water. People
with normal immune systems can expect the illness to last for up to two
weeks. Intermittent diarrhea can be expected during this time. For those
with weak immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, patients
undergoing cancer chemotherapy and organ transplant recipients, the
disease can be life threatening.
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Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Giardia/Giardia lamblia - Giardia is a waterborne protozoan that forms
cysts and is resistant to disinfectants such as chlorine and ultraviolet light.
Giardia lamblia is a type of cyst found in the intestines of mammals and in
water contaminated by mammal feces. The Giardia lamblia cyst, which is
very common and is frequently carried by water, is capable of causing a
contagious waterborne disease characterized by acute diarrhea. This
disease is sometimes called “beaver fever” because beaver droppings
containing Giardia lamblia are often suspected of contaminating the streams
and causing the disease in humans that drink the contaminated stream
water.
It takes only one Giardia organism to cause infection. Its effects include
chronic diarrhea, abdominal cramps, bloating, fatigue and loss of weight.
The disease requires medical treatment and may take up to two weeks
before symptoms show up.
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Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Legionnaires’ Disease - The ClearWater Purifier also completely kills
Legionnaires’ Disease, technically called Legionella pneumophila, which
causes a pneumonia like illness in people with weak immune systems. The
disease became more firmly identified after several people died at an
American Legion convention in 1976.
The bacteria is know to thrive at about 100oF and live in infected humidifiers,
cooling tower water, saunas, shower rooms and water supplies. The disease
is not contagious from person to person but is spread mainly by inhaling
airborne water droplets.
Legionnaires’ Disease can cause high fevers, severe respiratory ailments,
pneumonia and death. An estimated 10,000 people in the United States
develop the disease and in 5 to 15% the disease proves fatal.
Hospitals are often the victims of Legionnaires’ Disease because patients are
often elderly, very ill or have weak immune systems.
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Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
All of the previously mentioned diseases can be cured with the ClearWater
Purification System.
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Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
There are several applications for the ClearWater Purification System:
Swimming pools - ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc. has sold tens of
thousands of systems designed for swimming pools. There are currently 35
models to handle any size swimming pool up to 2.4 million gallons of water.
The big benefit with ionization and swimming pools is that the ionization kills
algae, bacteria and viruses--all major concerns of any health department that
regulates swimming pools.
Because the water is always recirculating, it is easy to maintain a continuous
kill of algae, bacteria and viruses.
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Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
The ions are long-lasting and keep a residual in the water unlike chlorine, UV
and ozone. The copper and silver ions are not absorbed by the skin and
effected by weather (ultraviolet evaporation) like chlorine is.
Spas/Hot Tubs - very similar to swimming pools, just
a much smaller volume of water. Spas normally use a
lot of bromine to control algae, bacteria and viruses
which can grow very easily in water that is over 100o.
Marine Inhabit Aquariums - ClearWater’s
ionizers are specially designed to work on both
fresh and salt water with no adjustments
required to the unit or electrodes.
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Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
One of the more popular applications is on marine inhabit aquariums, such as
dolphin tanks and sea turtles.
Algae is a major problem and a great deal of chlorine is required to control this
algae buildup which is harmful to the mammals.
By installing the ionizer with copper only electrodes, (silver may be harmful to the
mammals) algae is greatly controlled, often saving several hours a day in labor.
The lowered chlorine levels is both for the dolphin’s eyes and skin.
Cooling Towers - Cooling towers operate on the principle of removing heat from
water by evaporating a small portion of the water that is recirculated through the
unit. Cooling towers are an integral part of large central air conditioning/chiller
systems.
Cooling towers are a maintenance nightmare for the crew that maintains
them. Because large amounts of water are used, biological control of these
systems is critical. Without control, the development of biofilm and slime
leads to reduction in heat transfer, system blockages, increased pumping
costs, and a dramatic rise in the corrosion rate of the system’s pipe work and
fittings.
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Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
The copper and silver ions eliminates biological growth and will greatly reduce
corrosion.
The presence and growth of microorganisms in cooling towers cause plugged
water passages and severe deterioration of metal surfaces by under-deposit
corrosion. Iron deposition and corrosion is caused by the metabolism of “iron
bacteria”, which can remove water soluble ferrous salts and deposit them as
insoluble ferric oxides. These oxides tend to grow rapidly and can reach
sizes large enough to restrict water flow.
Another group of bacteria produce acids and waste which attach metal
surfaces directly. These organisms can convert water-soluble sulfur
compounds into hydrogen sulfide.
One of the most common sulfate-reducing bacteria is desulfovibrio. This
bacterium uses organic nutrients from the decomposition of other bacteria or
algae as food. This process often takes place under existing biofilm or scale
deposits. The corrosive action of desulfovibrio can produce condenser tube
penetration in as little as six weeks.
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Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
A third group of corrosive bacteria common to cooling towers are known as
nitrifying bacteria. These bacteria react with dissolved ammonia to produce
nitric acid. This acid lowers pH and causes localized attack on the cooling
tower’s metal frames and piping.
Algae, also a major source of trouble in cooling-water systems, adheres to
metal surfaces and accelerates pitting by the release of oxygen during the
metabolic process. Large algae growths also impede the effectiveness of
biocidal treatments by absorbing them. This resistance to chemical
treatment makes it necessary to rotate the chemical treatment to maintain its
effectiveness.
The copper/silver ionization system solves these biological problems and, as
an added bonus, it kills Legionella pheumophila bacteria. Cooling towers
are a major source of Legionnaires’ Disease (see previous section). This
disease may spread through the air conditioning vents in the entire building,
affecting people with weak immune systems.
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Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
A summary of all the benefits of the ClearWater Purification System on
cooling towers includes:
•Up to 90% reduction in chemicals and sewage pollution
•Reduced operating costs
•Extended equipment life
•Less down time
•Reduced water and sewer costs
•Reduce fouling factor
•Large energy savings
•Corrosion control improved dramatically
•Kills deadly Legionnaires’ Disease
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Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Hospital Water Supply - Hospitals are in business to help ill people. Did you
know that about 20% of all patients that enter the hospital actually contract
another disease during their hospital stay? One of the diseases is
Legionnaires’ Disease which effects ill people or those with weak immune
systems--basically any patient in the hospital.
Legionella can not only spread through the air conditioning vents from the
cooling towers, but from evaporative condensers, therapy pools and potable
water distribution system. Legionella is transmitted through aspiration,
aerosolization (a water steam generated from showers or faucets) or direct
exposure to Legionella during respiratory tract manipulation.
It is a well documented fact that copper and silver ions kill Legionnaires’
Disease and the use of the ClearWater Purification System can give
hospitals the assurance against possible multimillion dollar lawsuits from
people that die from the disease.
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Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications
FOR A CHLORINE AND SCALE FREE ENVIRONMENT
Drinking Water Systems - ClearWater has entered the drinking water
industry with its ionization system.
By incorporating copper and silver ions into the water supply, you can safely
lower chlorine levels, have a much better kill rate with bacteria, and kill viruses
(where chlorine fails to do the job).
The copper and silver ions provide a long lasting residual in the water, killing
bacteria and viruses on an ongoing basis.
Currently, ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc. has released a
copper/silver ionization system on an RO system (Reverse Osmosis) where
the ions enter the water supply, kill algae, bacteria and viruses and then they
are removed and stored in a holding tank.
Municipal water systems would be ideal uses of the ClearWater
Purification System because of government concerns about chlorine
and high THM levels--a cancer causing agent. By using less chlorine,
there are less THM’s in the water.
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