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Welcome to Econ 110 Econ 110 Introduction to Economic Theory Section 2 Professor Tanya Rosenblat Fall 2007 What is Economics? Economics is a: 1. Social Science 2. A Business Tool As a Social Science: Exploration of the consequences of - Rationality - Selfishness - Equilibrium As a Business Tool: Subject that studies the market forces that govern the creation and distribution of value in the marketplace EXAMPLES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Water/ Diamonds: what determines value? Why so many new textbook editions? Renting or Selling: what is better? Why is popcorn in theaters so expensive? Which auction maximizes revenue? To Lead or to Follow: what is better? PRINCIPLES 1. People face Tradeoffs: No “Free Lunch” 2. The Cost of Something is what you give up to get it 3. Rational People think at the Margin 4. Rational People react to Incentives No homework due the first week. No homework due the weeks of midterms Econ 110: Grade Components Homework (individual or team) 10% (8 best out of 10) Midterms 20% each (Oct 17 and Nov 14) Final examination 40% (December 10 ) More information on exams will be provided as the dates of exams approach + Class Participation 10% Grading Final course average is determined according to the following formula: [0.1 homework] + [0.2 midterm1] +[0.2 midterm2] + [0.4 final]+ [0.1 class participation] • Upward trend in performance will be rewarded. I will weigh final more if your perform substantially better on the final. • Students who do poorly in Econ 110 tend to be those who don’t come to class and don’t do the reading and problems sets • Class participation and attendance: – Not Compulsory, but appreciated. Please let me know if you cannot attend • Course readings: – Stiglitz and Walsh, Economics – Additional readings distributed through course website • Problem sets: – Individual or Group homework assignments to be turned in (no more than 4 persons) • Review session: Review sessions weekly on Tue at 7 pm in PAC 004 Classroom Etiquette: Responsibilities and Expectations • My responsibility: I will be on-time for every class (indeed, I will usually be 5 minutes early) – My reciprocal expectation: you will try to be in your seats and ready to go at the beginning of the hour. • My responsibility: I will remain in the classroom, intensely focused on your learning, for the duration of the class – My reciprocal expectation: please do not get up from the class and then return later • My responsibility: To surprise you with ideas and insights – To do this, I need to ask that you not read ahead in the chapters, especially when we are doing an experiment Last Warning: What Economics Offers and Does Not Offer: • Economics does NOT offer: – Simple recipes for dealing with every conceivable problem • Economics does offer: – Frameworks of enduring value, that can enable your intuition, harness your creativity, and help you think through a broad range of issues – A honing mechanism that helps you identify the data that is most relevant for dealing with complex, ambiguous problems What is Economics? • Economics in general is about the allocation of scarce resources: • What is produced? • How is it produced? • Who produces and gets paid for it? What does it cost? • Who buys it and why? • You can’t have it all! “Tradeoffs” “The Dismal Science” Real life Macro and Micro • Macro: Aggregate economic behavior and performance of economy: Inflation, unemployment, exchange rates, wealth, interest rates, income distribution • Micro: Focus on individual economic decisionmakers and behavior and performance of markets for goods, services, and productive inputs. (price of gasoline, wages of consultants, innovation in computer technology) What is Micro? • Economic behavior of individual consumers and producers (firms) • Interactions between consumers and firms in markets for goods and services, the role of prices, and the “laws of supply and demand” • Behavior and performance (prices, costs, efficiency) of markets for goods and services, including labor and capital • Perfectly competitive markets, monopoly, imperfect competition • Analyze effects of public policies: sales taxes, price controls, antitrust, information and disclosure, government subsidies, environmental regulations, on costs, prices, social welfare, consuming and producing groups Consumers, Producers, Markets • In this course we examine consumers, producers and how they interact in markets • Consumers choose what goods and services to buy by maximizing their utility or satisfaction subject to their scarce income or budget constraint. Consumers are rational given their information • Producers (firms) are constrained by technology, prices for inputs (labor, capital, raw materials), production from competing firms and what consumers are willing to pay (demand) for their products • Firms choose output and prices (supply) to maximize profits subject to these constraints Consumers, Producers, Markets • Consumers (demand) and producers (supply) interact in markets to trade money for goods and services • Markets determine prices assigned to goods and services and to scarce productive inputs (labor, capital, raw materials) • Prices play a central role in microeconomics and determine how scarce resources are allocated: what is produced, how is it produced, and who gets it. The central questions of economics. • Prices are signals that convey information to consumers and firms and ultimately link millions of consumers and thousands of firms. Consumers, Producers, Markets • Prices tell consumers how much different goods and services cost and allow them to decide whether to consume more or less of a good or service (demand) given how much they value them (utility or preferences) and their budget constraints • Prices tell producers how much consumers are willing to pay for what they produce and how much revenue they will receive if they producer alternative quantities (supply) • Prices for inputs (wages, capital) indicate what it will cost to produce so firms can decide whether to produce more or less and how to produce the products to reduce costs and increase profits (revenues – costs) Economic Models • We try to approach these economic problems scientifically, but individual human behavior is complicated, driven by many factors, and cannot be fully explained by simple precise mathematical relationships (e.g. E = mc^2 ) • We rely on simple theoretical models to understand consumer and producer behavior and price formation in markets of different kinds. A model is any description of a relationship between two or more economic variables (e.g. prices and quantities sold) • These models are based on many assumptions, which may sometimes seem unrealistic (e.g. consumers have good information about product prices and qualities offered by competing firms) • We then relax these assumptions to see how market behavior and performance change Theoretical vs Emprical • Theoretical economics is the process of building models to explain economic relationships (when prices rise consumers buy less – the law of downward sloping demand) • Empirical economics is the process of testing models and measuring the parameters of established economic relationships (e.g (if the prices of gasoline rises does consumption fall and by how much? -- elasticity of demand for gasoline) • Some economic phenomena are hard to explain empirically. • Why do people wait in line for four hours for a Britney Spears concert and why can scalpers charge 5 times the face value of the tickets? Perfect vs Imperfect Competition • One of the key sets of assumptions that must be made in micro theory is to characterize the nature of competition in various markets • We always start with “perfectly competitive” markets. Perfect competition relies on many assumptions that may all be satisfied for only a few products (e.g. wheat). Students find this annoying. • But perfect competition is a good starting point and many economic relationships can be understood well even in markets that don’t satisfy all of the assumptions • We will go on to examine alternative markets structures (e.g. monopoly, cartels) and many other market imperfections. Positive vs Normative • Positive economics focuses on explaining economic phenomena without making judgments about whether they are good or bad. • Why is Wesleyan’s tuition $36,536/year? Why is it almost identical to Williams’ and Brown’s tuition? • What happened to oil prices before and after the war in Iraq started on March 20, 2003? • Normative economics seeks to evaluate whether market outcomesare good, bad or could be improved upon with changes in market structures or with the application of government policies that affect market outcomes (e.g. controls on pollution). Normative economics uses phrases like efficiency, social welfare, consumer welfare, equity, etc., that reflect specific normative criteria which may or may not themselves be controversial Policy Analysis Microeconomics is often used to examine the effects of various government policies: - minimum wage (“living wage”) - sales taxes - antitrust policies (Microsoft) - farm subsidies (wheat, butter, milk, etc.) - safety standards (pharmaceuticals) - pollution regulations (global warming) - price controls (electricity prices) - information disclosure (Enron) - patent and copyright policies Economics Can Be Fun • Economics is about real life decisions made by individuals as consumers and producers. It can be applied to many phenomena that we encounter in every day life and care about as citizens. It is of enormous value in public policy analysis • By the end of this course you should be able to think and speak intelligently about issues like the following: - raising the minimum wage - alternative approaches to controlling pollution - government restrictions on Microsoft’s behavior - behavior of oil prices and effects of price controls - how to make investment decisions - how to evaluate insurance policies - why did Enron’s CEO earn 100 times more than Michael Roth? Production Function • Production refers to the conversion of inputs, the factors of production, into desired output. A production function for a particular good or service is often written as follows: Xi = f(L,K,M,R), • where Xi is the quantity produced of a particular good or service and: • L represents the quantity and ability of labor input available to the production process. • K represents capital input, machinery, transportation equipment, and other types of intermediate goods. • M represents land, natural resources and raw material inputs for production, and • R represents entrepreneurship, organization and risktaking. Example 1: One Good, Only Labor Input Variable Example 1: One Good, Only Labor Input Variable Production function with diminishing marginal productivity of labor Two Goods; Labor Supply = 7 MRT (of good 1 for good 2) – How much can output of good 1 increase if the firm decreases the output of good 2 by one marginal unit? • Marginal Rate of Transformation = the slope of the transformation frontier • This ratio measures the opportunity cost of using resources in producing one good in terms of the alternative use of those resources used in the production of the other good. Given diminishing marginal productivity, as resources are allocated away from good Y towards good X, the opportunity cost (|MRT|), of producing more of good X, increases. Examples y a bx MRT = |y’| = b x y c 2 2 y x (c x ) 2 1 / 2 2 1 / 2 x (c x ) 0