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GENER OG PERSONLIGHET KONTROVERSER ARVELIGHET ATFERDSGENETIKK Cato Grønnerød PSYC1204/PSY1101 GENER OG PERSONLIGHET KONTROVERSER ARVELIGHET ATFERDSGENETIKK Cato Grønnerød PSY1006/PSY1101 GENETICS AND PERSONALITY CONTROVERSIES HERITABILITY BEHAVIORAL GENETICS Cato Grønnerød PSY2600 BIOLOGISK PERSPEKTIV Evolusjonsperspektiv • Egenskaper har oppstått som følge av naturlig seleksjon som fremmer ønskede egenskaper Gener og personlighet • Arvelighet for personlighetstrekk Fysiologi • Nevrologiske korrelater og funksjoner Temperament • Byggesteiner for personlighetsutvikling BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Evolutionary perspective • Characteristics have emerged from natural selection that promotes desirable characheristics Genes and personality • Heritability of personality traits Physiology • Neurological correlates and functions Temperament • Building blocks of personality DET MENNESKELIGE GENOM Genom • Hele gensettet for en organisme Menneskelige genom • 30 000 – 40 000 gener på 23 par kromosomer Det menneskelige genomprosjekt • Sekvensere hele det menneskelige genom—dvs. identifisere den spesifikke DNA-molekylsekvensen for vår art THE HUMAN GENOME Genome • The complete set of genes that an organism possesses Human genome • 30,000–40,000 genes on 23 pairs of chromosomes Human Genome Project • Designed to sequence the entire human genome— i.e., identify the particular sequence of DNA molecules in human species DET MENNESKELIGE GENOM Identifisering av DNA-molekylsekvensene betyr ikke at man kan identifisere hvert molekyls funksjon De fleste gener i det menneskelige genomet er det samme for alle Bare et lite sett av gener er forskjellige for forskjellige individer, inkludert de som indirekte koder for fysiske trekk og personlighetstrekk © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. THE HUMAN GENOME Identifying sequence of DNA molecules does not mean identifying the function of each molecule Most genes in a human genome are the same for all humans Small number of genes are different for different individuals, including genes that indirectly code for physical traits and for personality traits © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. KONTROVERSER OM GENER OG PERSONLIGHET I hvilken grad er individuelle forskjeller i personlighet (for eksempel) er forårsaket av genetiske og miljømessige forskjeller? Høykontroversielt • Ideologiske problemstillinger • Fornyet intersse for eugenikk? Dersom et personlighetstrekk har en genetisk komponent betyr ikke dette at miljøfaktorer ikke kan påvirke trekket © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. CONTROVERSY ABOUT GENES AND PERSONALITY To what degree are individual differences in personality (for example) are caused by genetic and environmental differences? Highly controversial • Ideological concerns • Concerns about renewed interest in eugenics Finding that a personality trait has a genetic component does not mean the environment is powerless to modify a trait © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ATFERDSGENETISKE MÅLSETTINGER Å bestemme • Andelen av individuelle trekkforskjeller som kan knyttes til genetiske forskjeller og andelen som kan knyttes til miljøforskjeller • Måten gener og miljø samspiller og samvarierer for å danne individuelle forskjeller • Hvor i omgivelsene miljøeffektene faktisk fins—for eksempel sosialisering via foreldre, påvirkning fra forskjellige lærere, etc. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. GOALS OF BEHAVIORAL GENETICS To determine • The percentage of individual differences in a trait that can be attributed to genetic differences and percentage that can be attributed to environmental differences • The ways in which genes and environment interact and correlate with each other to produce individual differences • Precisely where in the “environment” environmental effects exist—e.g., parental socialization, different teachers to which children are exposed © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. HVA ER ARVELIGHET? Andel observert varians i en gruppe individer som kan forklares av eller baseres på genetisk varians ELLER Andel av fenotypisk varians som kan attribueres til genetisk varians Environmentality = andel observert varians i en gruppe individer som kan attribueres til miljømessig varians © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. WHAT IS HERITABILITY? Proportion of observed variance in group of individuals that can be explained or accounted for by genetic variance OR Proportion of phenotypic variance that is attributable to genetic variance Environmentality = proportion of observed variance in group of individuals attributable to environmental variance © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. FEILOPPFATNINGER OM ARVELIGHET Arvelighet KAN IKKE anvendes på enkeltindivider Arvelighet er IKKE konstant eller umulig å endre Arvelighet er IKKE et nøyaktig mål © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT HERITABILITY Heritability CANNOT be applied to single individual Heritability is NOT constant or immutable Heritability is NOT a precise statistic © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ATFERDSGENETISKE METODER Avling Familiestudier Tvillingstudier Adopsjonsstudier © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. BEHAVIORAL GENETICS METHODS Selective Breeding Family Studies Twin Studies Adoption Studies © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. AVLING Kan bare gjøres derom det ønskede trekket er arvelig Avlsstudier av hunder Kan av etiske grunner ikke utføres på mennesker © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. SELECTIVE BREEDING Can only occur if a desired trait is heritable Selective breeding studies of dogs Cannot be ethically conducted with humans © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. FAMILIESTUDIER Korrelerer grad av genetisk nærhet mellom familiemedlemmer med grad av likhet i personlighetstrekk Arvbare trekk • Familiemedlemmer med nærer genetisk slektskap bør være mer like hverandre enn familiemedlemmer med fjernere genetisk slektskap Problem • Medlemmer av familier som deler samme gener deler også ofte miljø—blander genetisk og miljømessig påvirkning © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. FAMILY STUDIES Correlates the degree of genetic overlap among family members with the degree of similarity in personality trait Highly heritable traits • Family members with greater genetic relatedness should be more similar to one another on the trait than family members who are less closely genetically related Problem • Members of the same family sharing genes also usually share the same environment—confounds genetic and environmental influences © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. TVILLINGSTUDIER Eneggede (monozygotiske, MZ) tvillinger deler 100% av genene Toeggede (dizygotiske, DZ) tvillinger deler 50% av genene Undersøke arvelighet ved å se om MZ er likere hverandre enn DZ © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. TWIN STUDIES Identical (monozygotic or MZ) twins share 100 percent of genes Fraternal (dizygotic or DZ) twins share only 50 percent of genes Estimates heritability by gauging whether MZ are more similar than DZ twins Two assumptions of the twins method • Equal environments assumption • Representativeness assumption © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. TWIN STUDIES Identical (monozygotic or MZ) twins share 100 percent of genes Fraternal (dizygotic or DZ) twins share only 50 percent of genes Estimates heritability by gauging whether MZ are more similar than DZ twins © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. TVILLINGSTUDIER Utregning av arvelighet: enkel formel • To ganger forskjellen mellom korrelasjonen for MZtvillinger og DZ-tvillinger • Arvelighet2 = 2 * (rMZ – rDZ) To forutsetninger • Likt miljø • Representativitet © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. TWIN STUDIES Calculating heritability, formula • Two times difference between correlation (“r”) for MZ twins and DZ twins • Heritability2 = 2 * (rMZ – rDZ) Two assumptions of the twins method • Equal environments assumption • Representativeness assumption © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ADOPSJONSSTUDIER Trekk med positive korrelasjoner mellom adpoterte barn og deres adoptivforeldre viser til miljøpåvirkning Trekk med positive korrelasjoner mellom adopterte barn og biologisk foreldre viser til genetisk påvirkning Omgår den problematiske forutsetningen om likt miljø © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ADOPTION STUDIES Positive correlations on traits between adopted children and adoptive parents provide evidence of environmental influence Positive correlations between adopted children and genetic parents provide evidence of genetic influence Adoption studies are powerful because they get around the equal environments assumption © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ADOPSJONSSTUDIER Problemer • Forutsetning av adopterte barn og deres adoptiv- og biologiske foreldre er representative for populasjonen • Selektiv plassering av adopterte barn Design som kombinerer styrker i begge studier = tvillinger som vokser opp hver for seg © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ADOPTION STUDIES Problems • Assumption that adopted children and their adoptive and genetic parents are representative of the general population—questionable • Selective placement of adopted children Design that combines strengths of twin and adoption studies = twins reared apart © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. HVOR LIKE ER TVILLINGER? Oskar og Jack HOW SIMILAR ARE TWINS? Oskar and Jack HOVEDFUNN FRA ATFERDSGENETISK FORSKNING Minnesota Twin Study Holdninger og preferanser Personlighetstrekk Drikking og røyking © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. MAJOR FINDINGS FROM BEHAVIORAL GENETIC RESEARCH Minnesota Twin Study Attitudes and Preferences Personality Traits Drinking and Smoking © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. MINNESOTA TWIN STUDY Minnesota Twin Family Study (MTFS) Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart Startet 1979, flere datainnsamlinger 1900 tvillinger av samme kjønn • 11 og 17-åringer Har endret synet på arvelighet MINNESOTA TWIN STUDY Minnesota Twin Family Study (MTFS) Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart Started 1979, several data gatherings 1,900 same-sex twins • 11 and 17 year olds Has changed conceptions about heritability HOLDNINGER OG PREFERANSER Stor varians i arvelighet for holdninger Noen (f.eks. tradisjonalisme) viser høy arvelighet (rundt 0,60) Andre viser liten eller ingen arvelighet (f.eks. tro på Gud) Uklart hvorfor noen holdninger arvelige og andre ikke Velvære: rundt 50% © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ATTITUDES AND PREFERENCES Wide variance in heritability of attitudes Some attitudes (e.g., traditionalism) show high heritability (about .60), whereas others show low or no heritability (e.g., beliefs in God) Not clear why only some attitudes appear to be heritable © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PERSONLIGHETSTREKK Arvelighetsestimater for de store personlighetstrekkene • Ekstroversjon, medmenneskelighet, samvittighetsfullhet, nevrotisisme, åpenhet • Rundt 20-45% Seksuell legning • Data indikerer at gener har en moderat og indirekte påvirkning på voksen seksuell legning via lav kjønnskonformitet i barndommen © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PERSONALITY TRAITS Heritability estimates for major personality traits • Extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience • About 20-45 percent Sexual orientation • Current evidence suggests that genes provide modest and indirect influence (via childhood gender nonconformity) on adult sexual orientation © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. DRIKKING OG RØYKING Avhengighetsatferd Afterdsmanifestasjoner av personlighetstrekk som spenningssøken, ekstroversjon og nevrotisisme Alkoholforbruk og røyking stabilt over tid Begge viser tegn på arvelighet © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. DRINKING AND SMOKING Behavioral manifestations of personality traits such as sensation seeking, extraversion, neuroticism Drinking alcohol and smoking cigarettes are stable over time Both show evidence of heritability © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PSYKISKE LIDELSER Schizofreni • Fram til 1960-tallet: foreldrene sett som årsak • Dramatisk økning i sannsynlighet hvis en forelder har schizofreni • Odds 50-50 for enegget tvilling hvis den andre har schizofreni • Men: schizofren tvilling kan ha hjerneanomalier som frisk tvilling ikke har MENTAL DISORDERS Schizophrenia • Up until the 1960’s: parents seen as causes of schizophrenia • Dramatic increase in probability if one parent suffers from schizophrenia • Odds are 50-50 for monozygotic twin if the other twin has a schizophrenia • But: schizophrenic twin can have brain anomalies that the healthy twin does not have DELT VERSUS IKKE-DELT MILJØ De samme studier som tyder på moderat arvelighet viser også støtte for viktigheten av miljøpåvirkning Personlighetstrekk viser arvelighet på 30– 50% Miljøpåvirkningen = 50–70% © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. SHARED VERSUS NONSHARED ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES Same studies that suggest moderate heritability also provide good evidence of the importance of environmental influences Personality characteristics show heritabilities in 30–50 percent range; hence, showing substantial degree of environmentality—50–70 percent © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. DELT VERSUS IKKE-DELT MILJØ Delt miljø • Karakteristikker i familier som deles av søsken (f.eks. antall bøker i hjemmet) Ikke-delt miljø • Karakteristikker i familier som er forskjellige for forskjellige søsken (f.eks. forskjellige venner, forskjellige lærere) © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. SHARED VERSUS NONSHARED ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES Two key types of environmental influences • Shared: In family environment, features of the environment shared by siblings (e.g., number of books in home) • Nonshared: In family environment, features of the environment that differ across siblings (e.g., different friends, different teachers) © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. DELT VERSUS IKKE-DELT MILJØ For de fleste personlighetstrekk har miljøet den viktigste rollen, men først og fremst gjennom ikke-delt miljø • Delt miljø har liten påvirkning Hva i det ikke-delte miljøet som påvirker personlgihet mest er uklart © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. SHARED VERSUS NONSHARED ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES For most personality traits, the environment has major influence, but this influence is primarily in the form of nonshared and not shared variables For most personality traits, the shared environment has little impact We do not know which nonshared experiences have a key impact on personality © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. GENOTYP-MILJØ-INTERAKSJON Individer med forskjellige genotyper reagerer forskjellig på samme miljø • Eksempel: oppgaveytelse for introverte versus ekstroverte i lavt versus høyt støynivå Individuelle forskjeller samhandler med miljøet ved utforming av atferd og prestasjoner © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION Differential response of individuals with different genotypes to the same environments For example, task performance of introverts versus extraverts in loud versus noisy conditions Individual differences interact with environment to affect performance © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. GENOTYP-MILJØ-KORRELASJON Individer med forskjellige geotyper eksponeres forskjellig til til ulike miljøer Tre typer genotyp-miljø-korrelasjoner • Passiv • Reaktiv • Aktiv © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION Differential exposure of individuals with different genotypes to different environments Three types of genotype-environment correlations • Passive • Reactive • Active © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. GENOTYP-MILJØ-KORRELASJON Passiv • Foreldre bidrar med både gener og miljø • Barna gjør ingenting for å skaffe dette miljøet, de bare mottar påvirkning • Barns verbale evner og antall bøker i hjemmet Reaktiv • Foreldre og andre reagerer forskjellig på barn avhengig av deres genotyp • Spebarnets preferanse for kos og mors koseatferd © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION Passive • Parents provide both genes and environment to children, yet children do nothing to obtain that environment • Child’s verbal ability and the number of books in home Reactive • Parents (or others) respond to children differently depending on the child’s genotype • Baby’s liking for cuddling and the mother’s cuddling behavior © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. GENOTYP-MILJØ-KORRELASJON Aktiv • Personer med spesielle genotyper søker seg til spesielle miljøer • Spenningssøkende personer utsetter seg for høy risiko Genotyp-miljøkorrelasjoner kan være positive eller negative © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION Active • Person with particular genotype seeks out a particular environment • High sensation seekers expose themselves to risky environments Genotype-environment correlations can be positive or negative © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. MOLEKYLÆRGENETIKK D4DR-genet Søking etter noe • Mest studerte sammenheng med D4DR og personlighet Individer med “long repeat”-versjonen av D4DR viser større interesse for noe nytt enn individer med “short repeat”-versjonen Vanskelig å replikere, svakere sammenhenger enn første gang • Empirisk krymping © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. MOLECULAR GENETICS D4DR Gene Most frequently examined association between D4DR gene and a personality trait involves “novelty seeking” Individuals with the “long repeat” version of D4DR gene are higher on novelty seeking than individuals with the “short repeat” version of gene But several failures to replicate association and, when replicated, association is weak © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ATFERDSGENETIKK, VITENSKAP, POLITIKK OG VERDIER Vi tenker i stor grad at personlighet er resultat av sosialisering Men trekk er også arvelige Politisk og ideologisk misbruk av atferdsgenetikk Enda mer problematisk i intelligensforskning Mer mainstream nå enn før © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. BEHAVIOR GENETICS, SCIENCE, POLITICS, AND VALUES Findings that some personality traits are heritable seemed to violate prevailing environmentalist view that personality is determined by socialization practices, such as parenting style People also worried about political and ideological misuse of behavioral genetics findings Much controversy surrounding individual differences in intelligence Behavioral genetics are now fairly mainstream © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ATFERDSGENETIKK, VITENSKAP, POLITIKK OG VERDIER Vitenskap kan misbrukes for politiske og ideologiske formål Forskere har derfor et spesielt ansvar, men Vitenskap kan skilles fra verdier Kunnskap er bedre enn kunnskapsløshet © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. BEHAVIOR GENETICS, SCIENCE, POLITICS, AND VALUES Because scientific research can be misused for political and ideological goals, scientists bear special responsibility, but Science can be separate from values Knowledge is better than operating in ignorance © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.