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How Verbs Change Your Meaning
Throughout Your Research Paper
Dr. Steve Wallace
Overview of Speech
• How to report facts, opinions, and implications by using the
correct verbs and verb tenses.
• How to use tentative verbs to express a probability,
possibility, or doubt.
• How to use verbs in 5 parts of the Introduction, in 2 parts of
the Methods, in 4 parts of the results, and in 5 parts of the
discussion.
• How to use the correct verb to show that you agree,
disagree, or are neutral toward previous literature in your
Introduction.
• How to indicate the strength or weakness of a previous
study through your word use.
• How to avoid anthropomorphism in verb use.
Researchers are paper builders
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Research is our material
Writing is the building process
Grammar rules are the tools
Like a building, our research may a have far
reaching and long lasting impact
• As teachers, our impact expands beyond our
work to the work of the next generation of
scholars we teach – apprenticeship
Teaching writing to students
• Teaching requires something concrete to
keep students awake
• Familiarity, Proximity, Reality, and Activity
• Comparing to something concrete gives us a
feeling of accomplishment
Blue collar writing habits
Build in pieces
Show up every day and follow a routine
Do not wait to write
The act of writing improves creativity
Do not criticize your rough draft
We write to make our bad ideas better
“The best way to get good ideas is to have lots of
ideas.” - Linus Pauling
Pride in our work and sharing our skills with others
Building material = research
Blue print = article structure
Tool box = English
Roof: Discussion
Walls: Results
Door: Methods
Foundation: Introduction
The editor and reviewers are building
inspectors for our paper
• Poor paper building (English) is used as a
common reason for rejection and major
revisions
• Rejection and major revisions take time
• Careless English suggests careless research
• Editors and reviewers do not have time to
rebuild papers
Today’s Talk
• We will discuss some fundamental tools that
you need in scholarly writing
• We will skip details and exceptions to make
this memorable, practical, and applicable with
the greatest benefit
• Verbs =
• Punctuation = Hammer and Nails
Why Discuss Verb Tense?
• Verb tense is a fundamental tool that is used
in every sentence like a saw
• Verb tense controls research impact and
meaning
• Extremely high value area to focus our time
• Nine years explaining in class, writing lab, to
editors, and to clients
Common tenses in academic writing
(99% of tense usage)
• Simple
•
Present
•
• They discuss
• Present
•
Perfect
•
• They have
discussed
Simple Past • Future
They
• They will
discussed
discuss
Past Perfect
They had
discussed
Tenses not common in the research
paper (1% - we won’t discuss today)
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Future Perfect
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They will have discussed
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Present hypothetical
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(go back to the past to
discuss the present)
•
• If they discussed…, they
would know…
•
• If they had discussed…, they
would have known…
•
Future prediction
(go back to the present to
discuss the future)
If they discuss…, they will
know…
Subjunctive
(go back to the present to
discuss the future)
If they were discussing…,
they would know…
• If they had been discussing,
they would have known
General Principles of Tense Use
in Academic Writing
When to Use the Present Tense
Use the present tense when stating or
referring to an established fact
• Fine motor skills require integrating muscular,
skeletal, and neurological functions.
• The salt in most oceans is approximately 97%
sodium chloride (Ritchie, 1999).
Use the present tense when
explaining the essential details of
conventional (unmodified)
materials
• The scanning electron microscope (SEM)
generally contains a tungsten hairpin filament,
which serves as an electron source.
• Silicon is the core component of most
semiconductor devices, and demonstrates
electrochemical properties in aqueous solutions.
Use the present tense for facts about
a general population
• The population density of Shanghai is
approximately 2,657 people per square
kilometer.
• Nearly 80% of Singaporeans are literate in
English as either their first or second language.
Use the present tense to explain and
describe equations and variables
• This equation illustrates the expected
behavior of the spin system as a function of
time and initial conditions.
• Equation (3) shows how solitary waves are
generated at the bump and run upstream.
Use the present tense to describe
what your figures and tables show
• The vital signs upon presentation are
summarized in Table 1.
• Figure 1 shows the relationship between age
and incidence of dementia.
• Exception:
X affected Y (Fig. 2).
Use the present tense when
referring to your paper overall
• The aim of this paper is to determine the
principal mechanical parameters of thin film
deposited on a circular glass substrate.
Introducing the tentative
present tense
Shows approximation, probability, and doubt
by using
1) Modal auxiliaries
2) Tentative words
Modal auxiliaries
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Will
Would
Should
May
Might
Could
Examples of the tentative present
tense using modals
• Generalized results could substantially alter
the course of research in this field.
• If applied as recommended herein, the
proposed method would mitigate the
uncertainties that have thus far hindered
progress.
Examples of tentative words
• Adjectives: apparent, consistent with, few, many, most,
possible, presumed, probable, several, some, supposed
• Adverbs: about, apparently, arguably, fairly, generally, largely,
likely, more or less, mostly, often, perhaps, possibly,
presumably, probably, quite, rather, somewhat, unlikely,
usually
• Nouns: appearance, indication, inference, likelihood,
possibility, probability, suggestion, tendency, to our
knowledge
• Verbs: aim, appear, assume, can, could, estimate, indicate,
infer, intend, may, might, presume, propose, seem, seen as,
should, speculate, suggest, suppose, tend
Examples of the tentative present
tense using tentative words
• “X appears to affect Y.”
• “X has a tendency to affect Y.”
• “This phenomenon indicates that X affects Y.”
When to Use the Tentative
Present Tense
Use the tentative present tense for
the implications of your findings
• This antigen seems to behave as an adhesion
molecule in NK-target cell interaction.
• Spirochetes appear to grow preferentially on
the external surface of subgingival plaque.
Use the tentative present tense to
express uncertainty, approximation,
and doubt
• Managerial accountants seem to be generally
averse to outsourcing.
• Managerial accountants might be generally
averse to outsourcing.
Use the tentative present tense when
expressing expected outcomes or
offering future recommendations
• This research may provide an alternative to
the common field measurement of soil
erosion and runoff.
How to Use the Past Tense
Use the past tense when describing
the methods of your study
• A questionnaire was administered to evaluate
the current impact of nursing innovation in
neonatal intensive care units.
Use the past tense when describing
materials in your study that you
modified, altered, or changed
• “A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was
modified by adding large-field
vector deflection to examine remote
radioactive specimens.”
• “The silicon used in this study was an n-type
silicon obtained from 100-mm diameter ingots
grown using the Czochralski method.”
Use the past tense when reporting
data obtained through your research
or your literature review
• “According to a 2009 survey conducted by the Institute
of Higher Education, Keio was the top-ranked private
university in Tokyo; the next highest were Juntendo,
Waseda, and Nihon.”
• “One-third of Internet users in Europe were infected by
malware in 2010.”
• “The students surveyed in this study were not a
randomly selected population and may not, therefore,
be representative of all students at NCTU.”
Use the past tense to refer to the
findings, results, or suggestions of a
single, previous study
• “Johnson & Lin (2002) determined that
calcium, zinc, and iron levels were higher in
wild rice than in white rice.”
• “Taggert (2007) reported that in 85% of cases,
the kidneys are affected by Wegner’s
glomerulonephritis.”
• Common verbs in the past tense: investigated, studied,
compared, analyzed, found, and examined
When writing research-focused
statements (referring to your own
study), use the past tense
• “The purpose of this study was to determine
whether or not a genetic correlation exists
between performance levels at high and low
temperatures.”
When to Use the Present Perfect
Tense
Use the present perfect tense when
referring to multiple previous studies
• Several researchers have studied the
relationship between classroom lighting and
standardized test performance (Jens, 2006;
Kirby et al., 2008; Milner, 2009).
• Hahn et al. (2009) and Thomas (2010) have
investigated the economic performance and
management quality of banks in Taiwan.
• Previous research on the superconductivity of
degenerate materials has been rare.
How to Use the Future Tense
The future tense is rarely used in
research submitted for publication
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Commonly incorrectly used
Possibly use for future work or projections
Should be used in proposals
Can be used in protocols and standard
operating procedures
• Can be used in theses and dissertations
How to Apply Tenses Throughout
the Research Paper
Overview of the tenses in the
Introduction
Stage one: Motivation starting with current
knowledge or previous studies - Present or
Present perfect tense
Stage two: Literature review - Present, Present
perfect, or Past tense
Stage three: Knowledge gap – Present or
Present perfect tense
Stage four: Problem statement – Present or Past
tense
Stage five: Rationale for study – Tentative
present tense
Introductions Stage one:
Present tense or Present perfect
• “Motor skills require action based on rapid
change in the environment.”
• “Clean water is a basic human need.”
• “Previous studies have indicated the need for
further research in X.”
Introduction Stage two:
Literature Review
• Fact citation – Present tense
- “In most deserts of the world, transitions between
topographic elements are abrupt (Kramer, 1993).”
Multiple study citation – Present perfect tense
- “Several researchers have studied the relationship
between classroom adjustment and mobility
(Smith, et al. 2002; Johnson and Willard, 2003;
Madsen, 2009).”
Single study citation-Past tense
- “Allington (1998) found that teachers allocated
equal time to all groups.”
Tenses in single study citation:
Present, past, or tentative present tense
• “Johnson found that X affects Y.”
• “Johnson found that X affected Y.”
• “Johnson suggested that X may affect Y.”
Introduction Stage three: Knowledge gap
Present or present perfect tense
• “However, few studies have reported on the
effects of computer assisted instruction.”
• “However, few studies have investigated the
effects of antioxidant seeds on the endocrine
system.”
• No previous work on the relationship between
X and Y currently exists in the literature.
Introduction Stage four: Objective
Past or present tense
• “The purpose of this study was to determine
whether or not genetic differences exist at low
temperatures in pepper species.”
• “The aim of this paper is to determine
whether an automatic measurement system
can be applied to educational settings.”
Optional introduction Stage five: Implications
Tentative present tense
• “This research may contribute an alternative
approach to the problem of manually
demonstrating instrumentation principles in
classroom environments.”
• “This research may provide an alternative to
the common field measurement of soil
erosion and runoff.”
Overview of tenses in the Methods
• Describing multiple previous studies: Present
perfect tense
• Describing conventional material: Present
tense
• Describing modified material: Past tense
• Describing general populations: Present tense
• Specific samples: Past tense
• Procedures: Past tense
Use the present perfect tense when
referring to multiple previous studies
• “Hahn et al. (2009) and Thomas (2010) have
investigated the economic performance and
management quality of banks in Taiwan.”
• “Previous research on the superconductivity
of degenerate materials has been rare.”
Findings, results, or suggestions of
a single, previous study: Past
tense
• “Johnson & Lin (2002) determined that
calcium, zinc, and iron levels were higher in
wild rice than in white rice.”
• “Taggert (2007) reported that in 85% of cases,
the kidneys are affected by Wegner’s
glomerulonephritis.”
Describing conventional material: Present
tense
• “The scanning electron microscope (SEM)
generally contains a tungsten hairpin filament,
which serves as an electron source.”
• “Silicon is the core component of most
semiconductor devices, and demonstrates
electrochemical properties in aqueous
solutions.”
• “A typical chemical reactor includes a helical,
tube-in-tube heat exchanger.”
Describing a modified material: Past tense
• “For the testing program, this collector was
protected from weather by an outer window
of .10-mm tedlar.”
• “A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was
modified by adding large-field
vector deflection to examine remote
radioactive specimens.”
• “The silicon used in this study was an n-type
silicon obtained from 100-mm diameter ingots
grown using the Czochralski method.”
Describing populations: Present tense
• “All students who apply for admission to NCTU
take the General English Proficiency Test.”
• “Nearly 80% of Singaporeans are literate in
English as either their first or second language.”
Specific samples from a
population: Past tense
• “The students surveyed in this study were not
a randomly selected population and may not,
therefore, be representative of all students at
NCTU.”
• “The subjects were 18 Chinese-speaking
students attending at NCTU.”
Explain and describe equations and
variables: Present tense
• “This equation illustrates the expected
behavior of the spin system as a function of
time and initial conditions.”
Procedures: Past tense
• “Stress was applied to the rubber segments.”
• “A questionnaire was administered to
evaluate the current impact of nursing
innovation in neonatal intensive care units.”
Results
• Locating figures: Present tense
• Presenting the findings: Past tense
• Comparing results with the results of other
studies: Present tense and modals
• Commenting on results: Present tense and/or
tentative verbs
Locating figures: Present tense
• “Results of the t-tests are presented in Table 1.”
• “Table II lists the results of the independent ttest.”
• “Figure 3(c) displays the chemical reaction
scheme used to synthesize the copolymer.”
Presenting the findings: Past tense
• “Subjects in this study spent more time engaged
in activities that matched their interests and skill
levels.”
• “Participants in each reward trial selected the
high-probability stimulus significantly more often
than the low-probability stimulus (P < 0.05).”
• “As a group, divorced mothers spent over twice
as much time in employment as married mothers
(Figure 2).”
Presenting different types of results: Past
tense
• “The highest incidence of Otitis Media was
found among Australian Indians.”
• “Prices showed a tendency to increase over
the three year period.”
• “Dry weight of top growth was not highly
related to total nitrogen.”
Comparing results with other studies:
Present tense
• “As opposed to previous research using
noncontact specular microscopy, our Orbscan
II measurements are significantly smaller.”
• “Conversely, our results demonstrate
improved performance over previously
proposed methods.”
Commenting on results:
Tentative present tense
• “Hyperactive children may be generally
responsive to amphetamines.”
• “Hyperactive children appear to be generally
responsive to amphetamines.”
• “Managerial accountants seem to be generally
averse to outsourcing.”
• “Managerial accountants might be generally
averse to outsourcing.”
Overview of tenses in the Discussion
• Referring to the purpose, Referring to the
hypothesis, Restating the findings: Past tense
• Explaining findings: Past or tentative present
tense
• Limiting findings: Past or tentative present
tense
• Comparing findings: Present tense
• Implications: Tentative present tense
• Recommendations and applications:
Tentative present tense
Referring to the purpose, Referring to the
hypothesis, Restating the findings: Past
tense
• “In this research, we attempted to assess two
theories of behavior.”
• “We originally assumed that physical decrements
would be more apparent in speed jobs that in skill
jobs.”
• “The principle of readability was not followed in the
income tax booklet on any of the counties studied
except Hsinchu.”
Explaining findings: Tentative present tense
with past or present in second verb
• “These results indicate that microbial activity
caused some immobilization of labial soil
phosphorus.”
• “These results indicate that microbial activity
cause some immobilization of labial soil
phosphorus.”
Comparing findings to previous findings:
Present tense
• “These results are in substantial agreement
with those of Bates (2).”
• “This outcome corresponds with that of
Rundle et al. (2008).”
• “Our findings agree with those of both
Cherundolo (2002) and Dempsey (2010).”
Limiting findings:
Past or tentative present tense
• “The sample was small.”
• “Other industries may produce different
results.”
• “The sample involved only children aged three
to five years old.”
Implications: Tentative present tense
• “Squatter housing markets seem to behave as
economically rational entities.”
• “This antigen could behave as an adhesion
molecule in NK-target cell interaction.”
• “Spirochetes appear to grow preferentially on
the external surface of subgingival plaque.”
Recommendations and applications:
Tentative present tense
• “The approach outlined in this study should be
replicated in other manufacturing plants.”
• “We recommend that the approach outlined
in this study be replicated in other
manufacturing plants.”
How to Use Reporting Verbs
Reporting Verbs
• A reporting verb introduces information that
is written by another author
• An author's name is often the subject of the
verb
• The object or complement of a reporting verb
usually contains information from an
academic text
• Common in the Literature Review
Three reasons for using a reporting
verb
1) To present the aim of the study you are summarizing
“Smith (2010) examined the relationship between research and
scholarly writing.”
2) To talk about the results that the author you are summarizing
“Jones (2002) showed that deaths per capita in accidents are
particularly high in developing countries.”
3) To give the opinion of the author you are summarizing
“Smith (2002:96) argued that the adoption of just-in-time
delivery systems was the decisive factor for Japanese
economic success in the 1980s.”
Reporting verbs for the Aim of Study
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investigate
examine
analyze
focus on
identify
report (on)
Reporting verbs for the Results
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show (that)
find (that)
identify (x) as
reveal (that)
establish (that)
confirm (that)
conclude (that)*
Reporting verbs for Opinion
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state (that)
believe (that)
argue (that)
point out (that)
consider (that)
hold (that)
claim (that)
Reporting verbs for main points and
supporting points
• Common verbs for reporting claims (i.e.,
statements) based on theory or research
• Main points
Supporting points
• assert
note
• claim
observe
• state
point out
Example of reporting a main point
followed with a supporting point
“Smith (2010) stated that poor diet was a key
cause of obesity. He noted that obesity was a
major issue in developing countries.”
Example of reporting a result
followed with a conclusion drawn
from that result
• “In a study to investigate obesity, Smith (2012)
showed that young people who ate fast food
more than 3 times a week were heavier than
young people who ate meals at home. This
finding suggests that obesity is associated
with eating fast food.”
Poor reporting verbs: Mention
• The verb 'mention' is unsuitable for
reporting the results of experiments and
studies.
• “Smith (2010) mentioned three factors
which can lead to obesity.”
• The verb 'mention' makes the 'three factors' seem
unimportant and not supported by evidence or analysis.
Poor reporting verb: Say
• Can use 'say' to introduce a direct spoken
quotation.
• “Johnson says that further research into
the causes of X is needed.”
• Frequent use of the verb 'say' can make writing
informal.
Using Reporting Verbs to Show
Opinion
Reporting verbs show your opinion of
others’ ideas
1) A belief that the literature is correct (stronger
position)
2) A belief that the literature is incorrect (weaker
position)
3) A neutral attitude towards the veracity of the
literature (i.e., neither correct nor incorrect –
neutral position)
Positive reporting verbs for agreeing
with an author’s opinion
• Acknowledges
• Affirms
• Certifies
• Explains
• Identifies
• Observes
Example of expressing a positive
opinion about cited information
• “Gardner (1994) observes that what turns
good teaching material into good learning
material is what teachers do with it.”
Negative reporting verbs for
disagreeing with an author’s opinion
• Accuses
• Claims
• Guesses
• Proclaims
• Expects
• Hopes
Example of expressing a negative
opinion about cited information
• “Gardner (1994) claims that what turns good
teaching material into good learning material
is what teachers do with it.”
Neutral reporting verbs for citing an
author’s opinion
Adds
Concludes
Describes
Maintains
Says (for spoken quote)
States
Example of expressing a neutral
opinion about cited information
• “Gardner (1994) states that what turns good
teaching material into good learning material
is what teachers do with it.”
Examples of Strong, Neutral, and
Weak Reporting Verbs by
Function
Verb function: agreement
• Weaker position: admits, concedes
• Neutral position: accepts, acknowledges,
agrees, concurs, confirms, recognizes
• Stronger position: applauds,
congratulates, extols, praises, supports
Verb function:
argument and persuasion
• Weaker position: apologizes
• Neutral position: assures, encourages,
interprets, justifies, reasons
• Stronger position: alerts, argues, boasts,
contends, convinces, emphasizes,
exhorts, forbids, insists, proves, promises,
persuades, threatens, warns
Verb function:
disagreement and questioning
• Weaker position: doubts, questions
• Neutral position: challenges, debates,
disagrees, questions, requests, wonders
• Stronger position: accuses, attacks, complains,
contradicts, criticizes, denies, discards,
disclaims, discounts, dismisses, disputes,
disregards, negates, objects to, opposes,
refutes, rejects
Verb function: discussion
• Weaker position: comments
• Neutral position: discusses, explores
• Stronger position: reasons
Verb function: presentation
• Weaker position: confuses
• Neutral position: comments, defines,
describes, estimates, forgets, identifies,
illustrates, implies, informs, instructs, lists,
mentions, notes, observes, outlines, points
out, presents, remarks, reminds, reports,
restates, reveals, shows, states, studies, tells,
uses
• Stronger position: announces, promises
Verb function: suggestion
• Weaker position: alleges, intimates,
speculates
• Neutral position: advises, advocates,
hypothesizes, posits, postulates, proposes,
suggests, theorizes
• Stronger position: asserts, recommends,
Verb function: emphasis
• Weaker position: (none)
• Neutral position: accentuates,
emphasizes, highlights,
• Stronger position: stresses,
underscores, warns
Verb function: believing
• Weaker position: guesses, hopes, imagines
• Neutral position: believes, claims, declares,
expresses, feels, holds, knows, maintains,
professes, subscribes to, thinks
• Stronger position: asserts, guarantees, insists,
upholds
Verb function:
evaluation and examination
• Weaker position: (none)
• Neutral position: analyses, appraises,
assesses, compares considers, contrasts,
critiques, evaluates, examines,
investigates,
• Stronger position: blames, complains,
ignores, scrutinizes, warns
Anthropomorphism
• “An interpretation of what is not human or
personal in terms of human or personal
characteristics.” (Merriam-Webster, 2010)
• "Do not attribute human characteristics to
nonhuman animals or to inanimate sources."
(APA; 2010, section 3.09)
• "An experiment cannot attempt to demonstrate,
control unwanted variables, or interpret findings,
nor can tables or figures compare (all of these can,
however, show or indicate)." (p. 38).
APA (2010) manual provides the
following examples:
• Correct: “Pairs of rats (cage mates) were allowed to
forage together.”
• Incorrect: “Rat couples (cage mates) were allowed
to forage together.” (p. 69)
• Problem: Rats cannot be rightly described as a couple; that term is used
with reference to people.
• Incorrect: “This experiment will attempt to
demonstrate that laughter leads to long life.”
• Correct: “The purpose of this experiment is to
demonstrate that laughter leads to long life.”
More APA examples
• Incorrect: “The community program was persuaded to
allow five of the observers to become tutors.”
• Correct: “The staff for the community program were
persuaded to allow five of the observers to become
tutors.”
• Incorrect: “The National Education Association (NEA)
feels that school reform is inappropriate.”
• Correct: “Officials of the National Education
Association (NEA) feel that school reform is
inappropriate.”
Some anthropomorphisms found in
student writing
• Incorrect: “The article discussed issues
related to CBU in TFT-LCDs.”
• Correct: “Rogers (2010) discussed issues
related to CBU in TFT-LCDs.”
Some anthropomorphisms found in
student writing
• Incorrect: “This experiment will attempt to
demonstrate that X can affect Y.”
• Correct: “The purpose of this experiment is to
demonstrate that X can affect Y.”
Some anthropomorphisms found in
student writing
• Incorrect: “The statistics argued in favor of
adding X to Y.”
• Correct: “The statistics indicated that X should
be added to Y.”
Some anthropomorphisms found in
student writing
• Incorrect: “The university wanted to discover a
way to increase student enrollment.”
• Correct: “The university administrators
wanted to discover a way to increase student
enrollment.”
More examples of
anthropomorphisms
• “When the drill string feels the
weight,…”
• “TSMC stock enjoyed a 2% rise today”
Using the verb “feel” in academic
writing
• “We feel that the best answer is X”
• “We feel that this conclusion is
incorrect”
• “Feel” has an emotional and not rational meaning
• Using this term can make you look uncertain, especially when
you use it with quantities or conclusions
Verb tense: Humanities (MLA)
• Books, Poems, Plays, Movies
• When you are discussing a book, poem, movie, play, or song
the convention in the humanities is to use the present tense:
“In An Introduction to English Grammar (2006),
Noam Chomsky discusses several types of
syntactic structures.”
“In Paradise Lost, Milton sets up Satan as a hero
who changes the course of history.”
Verbs for Historical Contrast/
Humanities
• To contrast ideas from different periods, you can use the past
and the present or present perfect tense. The past tense
implies that an idea has lost its validity, while the present
tense conveys the current state of acceptance.
• “Stanley Fish (1993) maintained a
reader-response stance in his analysis of
Milton's L'Allegro and Il Penseroso.
However, recent literary critics
consider/have considered this stance to
be inappropriate for the two poems.”
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