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Ingroup Schemas have a positive slant, while outgroup schemas have a negative slant - - - usually, politicians cannot move partisan bases from one end of a spectrum to the other o must mobilize the base to get votes and convince or win over floating voters Online Processing Model of Attitudes: a cognitive model, your attitudes towards a subject, based on valenced beliefs…attitudes can be recorded very quickly o Have beliefs, but forget reasoning while maintaining valence o People translate cognition into emotion and use emotions to evaluate political figures Dual Processing Model: Automatic process (intuition- mere exposure/recognition effect & stomatic representations), Controlled Process (reason) Affective Tag Gets Stored - - - beliefs largely forgotten, but affective tag called up and reported Any new information can update the affective tag o Highly educated people online process often Inference Free Sources of Attitudes: mere exposure effect- subliminally exposed to an object…mere recognition effect- conscious awareness of exposure If you recognize the name, automatically more favorable Somatic Representations & Facial Feedback Efects: ex) overt head action effects- nodding and shaking effects…strong correlation between positive/negative views… Body often influences attitudes and beliefs o Facial Similarity: you like faces that are similar to yours…more likely to trust and like them…TRUSTWORTHY, NOT LUSTWORTHY o Facial Characteristics: implicit associational learnings ex) big nostrils and criminal …make inferences about character based on appearance o Mood Effects: can greatly influence how you feel about an individual (up to 8/9 points on a 100 pt scale)…have many feelings that never reach conscious awareness…when amygdala senses threat, sends information to dispositin system & relies on habit o Facial judgments can predict 70% of elections- who looks more competent?- face of challenger matters more then incumbent Explicit and Implicit Attitudes: o Implicit- fully automatic, cannot consciously report feelings that we can’t or won’t express…must use indirect methods to access these attitudes because they cannot be reported Tested through pairing people with words and timing response - - - - - - CLASSIC COGNITIVE MODEL Symbolic Politics Theory: (David Sears)- individuals are classically conditioned in childhood to have vary positive or negative attitudes towards certain objects that are understood symbolically…we do not fully understand them and those attitudes persist over our lifetime Beliefs shape attitudes Balance heuristic- when you see a candidate you like, you assume that they agree with you when people are made anxious/unsettled they learn…don’t rely on habit, vote on basis of learning o prefrontal cortex dictates habitual behavior & if under duress, executive center will take over. Cognitive appraisal- emotions are experienced and can be recalled…appraises circumstance which inspires attitude/emotion about event Hope is a mixed emotion coupled with anxiety and uncertainty Valenced beliefs towards objects…assumes that you consciously use all available information to form beliefs AFFECTIVE PROCESSING/ INTELLIGENCE THEORY Emotions correspond to a bundle of discrete beliefs Cognitive appraisal approach: base emotions either positive or negative- if you have a target to direct your emotions o angry people are risk seeking and work through heuristic processing…anxious people focus on learning and seek control through piecemeal processing…anxious people are passive and not risk taking, often overestimating risk, while the opposite can be said for angry people o (EGGERT ARTICLE) angry people overestimated the change of success of the Iraq war, while anxious people did not want involvement o anxiety deals a lot with control over the situation Social Environment/Influence: o Obedience/compliance and deference- boss/worker relationship…crimes of obedience o Status deference- hight/medium/low status, influenced by people of higher status, operates outside of environments with institutionalized or hierarchical organizations o Conformity- influenced by others regardless of status o Group Ties- reference groups, defined by race, sex, education etc MILLIGRIM EXPERIMENT Unexperienced subject told experiment is about learning, when really it is about texting obedience to authority Learner is actually an experimenter, while teacher is subject being tested o 1- REMOTE: shocking machine in separate room, hears responses but no feedback to shocks 65% went to 450 (avg. 405) o 2- VOICE FEEDBACK: scheduled complaints at certain volts by confederate learner 62.5% went to 450 (avg. 375) o 3- PROXIMITY: sitting in the same room…strict script with scheduled complaints 40% went to 450 (avg. 300) o 4- TOUCH PROXIMITY: subject must move learners arm onto the plate to deliver shock 30% went to 450 (avg. 240) o 5- NEW BASELINE: moved experiment into a less fancy lab (made experimental environment less impressive)…much more dramatic schedule of protests- all heard by subject, but in another room) 65% went to 450 o 6- CHANGE OF PERSONNEL: experimenter no longer as stern looking 50% went to 450 o 7- EXPERIMENTOR ABSENT: subject given instructions by phone 20% went to 450…a lot of cheating- lower compliance o 8- WOMEN AS SUBJECTS: 65% went to 450 o 9- PRIOR CONDITIONS: confederate subject insists they will participate only if they stop when learner insists 40% went to 450 o 10- NEW LABORATORY: creates fictional company, no longer associated with Yale University 47.5% went to 450 o 11- SHOCK LEVEL: subjects able to choose shock level avg. shock, 75 volts (only one subject went to 450 [2.5%]) o 12- LEARNER DEMANDS TO CONTINUE @ 150 volts, experimenter forbids the experiment to continue 100% subjects stop when told to do so o 13- ORDINARY MAN: assistant gives orders 20% obey (4/20) for the 16 who disobeyed, when the ordinary man tried to continue the experiment, the subjects would intervene to stop o 14- AUTHORITY TO VICTIM: experimenter plays role of learner because told to do so by confederate @ 150 told to stop- slight protest, but 100% subjects immediately stop o 15- TWO AUTHORITIES: at 150 volts, authorities begin to disagree 100% subjects stop w/in one voltage level o 16- TWO AUTHORITIS, ONE AS VICTIM: 65% obey o 17- TWO PEERS REBEL: other peer is actually confederate…responsibility of crime is shared (peer influence) - - - - - - - one peer stops @150, the other @ 210…great deal of subjects stop because peer actions…only 10% go all the way to the end o 18- PEER INFLUENCE: peers go all the way to the end, so subjects are more inclined to do the same…especially because subject is not administering the shocks 37/40 go all the way to the end 1-11 studies show that people are not acting dispositionally, but feel compelled to act in a certain way…12-18 show response to authority Consistency Theory: actors do things in order to minimize/reduce noxiousness o Disobey o Denial I/II/III (knew fake…”punished the idiot”...subjects felt terrible about themselves) o Rationalization I/II (find the prime mover- experimenter or person/peer) o Minimal Compliance (cheating) o Avoidance (limit sensory response) o Deflect through physical expression (cry or laugh) Bureaucratization- influenced by those hierarchically and institutionally above us (low status v. high status)…rationalization- blame on authority, routinizationfocus on task, not on consequences, organization of authorities o Men thought to be higher then women Status deference= will respect higher status more, as determined by wealth/ appearance (ex. more apt to follow a man wearing a 3 piece suit if he jaywalks, then a homeless looking man) ASH EXPERIMENT & SIZE OF LINES- people will deny what they see and submit to group pressure CONFORMITY & GROUPS: Primary groups= those you interact with and have deep feelings for (friends and family) Reference groups= broad social group which we classify. Place yourself/identify with group. People conform for social approval- we are liked more when we conform o Look to others for cues on how to conform…favor ingroup members to outgroup members Outgroup schemas have more negative inferred traits o Ex) Conformity to sign petition influenced by WHO signed it (high class signaled through name) and HOW MANY signed Realistic Group Conflict Theory= groups are in competition & you share your fate with the group o Robber’s Cave Experiment: summer camps play against other summer camps- ingroup favoritism and outgroup antagonism o Social identity theory= in the absence of competition, these phenomena will still occur as a result of categorization we are social beings whose self concept is tied with a group and self esteem directly relates to the group - - - - - - o ex) when allocating money, people would allocate less money to outgroup as long as the difference was more distinct (50/50 v 45/25) when changing opinion about lower status: o mobility o seek positive distinctiveness new dimension of status counter argue resolve/revalue low status attribute o change the outgroup o acknowledge and challenge subordinate status group consciousness: acknowledge status difference, believe it to be illegitimate, sense of shared fate zero sum conflict exacerbated tensions between groups, especially if competing for resources…in order to mitigate competition, replace it with a situation that is not zero sum (all groups win) o 1- Activate Superordinate Identity o 2- Activate a Crosscutting Identity- integration v. segregation….stereotyping goes own because new “we” POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION: Most important time for development of self is 18-25 People’s political views change over their lifetime Changes at the individual level tell us about the changes at the macro level as well Focus on children and socialization in politics o Believed that ideas formed in preadult years would exist over lifetime Population replacement= people die, people are born, yet the % that supports democracy remains the same produces stability in the polity and continuity at large Affect of marriage on political lifespan (spouses tend to be politically similarassortative mating) o As marriage ages, political differences diminish because primary groups influence us ASYMMETRIC BY GENDER- wife is more likely to accommodate and acquire political views of husband…those with more political expertise are influential (historically, men) Men are more conservative, as are married women CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE o Personalization Abstraction: ex) do not understand the role of president or leaders, but can identify who they are o Homogenous Differentiated: - all leaders are equal, then status changes as the child ages o Idealized Realistic/Cynical: BENEVOLENT LEADER PHENOMENON o Affect Cognition: people acquire attitudes about parties before they understand the details (Greenstein Article) - - - - - - - - Social Learning= children acquire images/ understanding through parent education or schools. Exposed to positive information in home or at school Transference= movement of feelings from one person/group to another….feelings towards fathers applied to leaders/father figures The Malevolent Leader- studied children in Appalachia who lacked father figure in their household (much less benevolent) AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION: parents, peers, teachers, religious leaders, mass media. o Parents are the most important: 1) bond of affection- social approval motive, desire to be harmonious/similar to them 2) most exposed to parents 3) control exposure/access to other agents during childhood EXPECTATIONS FROM SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY & TRANSMISSION SUCCESS o 1) frequency of cues increases, transmission success increases o 2) consistency of cues and access to parents increases, transmission success increases o 3) consistency of cues across childhood/adolescence over time increases, transmission success increases. Class divide reinforced by socialization policies in the home o Low socioeconomic households tend to stay out of politics, while high socioeconomic households participate in politics Transmission dynamics strong for some elements and weak for others between parents and children…ex) party identification, evaluation of political leaders, ideology, religion & morality GENETICS, BEHAVIOR & DEVELOPMENT: Boys feel more strongly about boy type behavior and identity in childhood Gender identities & sex type behaviors- interaction of nature and parenting…awareness of anatomical sex differences…ID with same sex parent…form gender identity (FREUD) o SOCIAL LEARNING: exposure to sex typed behavior imitate/ model o SCHEMA: learning about gender form gender schema become assimilated and form self schema Asymmetry to sex-typed behavior- stronger reinforcement of boy Genetic influence muted while at home, but becomes stronger when outside the home identical twins are more politically similar then fraternal twins, gives credibility to genetic influence BUT identical twins have more similar social processes because spend more time together and influence each other the way genes matter is incredible complicated Impressionable Years: (IYs) 18-25 years…why are IYs so critical to political development…incredibly dense set of transitions and consequential life experiences…weak preadult socialization…key developmental moment early learning shapes later learning through consistency, schema based and self identification processes - - - - - o Ex) Bennington Study- followed women during college & after for 50 years Political Generation= group of individuals (cohorts) who came of age and went through their IYs at a particular period in history, which led to a particular political imprint in their beliefs and attitudes which persists as they age Generation Y (Millennial)- Boom mid 1980 and later…2000 IYs much less likely to vote, less religious, low knowledge of politics (as compared to older groups at the same time of the life cycle) Boomers- born in post WWII. IYs 60s and 70s. Millennial more likely to be political on their own and say involvement in community is important…more liberal on social issues, more egalitarian…less likely to understand, in a deep way, the cost of inequality…less likely to join clubs or groups Attitudes crystallize with age- become more real and strong (turnout) (trust in others) Change in polity is generally driven by compositional changes Population is ageing because people live longer…more concern about social security…more strong, stable attitudes…decline in trust in America at large IYs after political cleavage: once cleavage exists, people gong through IYs will bring mindset about issues into alignment (persuaded by party to adopt their issue position OR opt for a party that best reflects your issue position) o If of age when cleavage occurs, ideas are stabilized and do not adapt - Mercury Theatre on the Air- ALIENS ATTACK ARGHKSLJDSFHSDG! o Effect of media- maximal effects, fear of broadcast. No research late ‘70s‘80s, research on effects/persuasion of media - MEDIA MESSAGES: Media can: o 1) Persuade o 2) Inform o 3) Provide Source Cues o 4) Prime - o 5) Agenda Set o 6) Demobilize o 7) Make Emotional Appeals o 8) Confer Status o 9) Frames media message challenges/ contradicts prior predisposition PERSUASION- (classic cognitive model) media takes a position that may persuade individuals who receive that message Probability Message Accepted p(Exposure) P(Persuasion) - single message= public’s predispositions are generally weak…”hard issues” P(Persuasion)= P(Exposure) - two messages= one from source A, one from source B…polarizing power - “Rally Effects in Politics”- change in approval of President…”rally around the flag”…surge of patriotism post 9/11 BUT, sometimes approval does not change (depends on how elites view event) INFORMING: - - - - - - - - Candidates are better off if they talk about opponent vis-à-vis themselves and cast opponent in a negative light Female v. Male Candidates o F: more trustworthy (as judged by voters) o F: more likely to self narrate own advertisements…capitalizing on credibility and trustworthiness (UAE- PERSON OF OUTGROUP IS SEEN AS MANIPULATIVE) Election Coverage: horserace v. substantive 1960: 50% 50% 1990: 85% 15% There is an overwhelming amount of information received about candidates is not substantial PRIMARY SEASON FOCUSES ON SUBSTANTIAL INFORMATION…but most of the public is not paying attention- only schematics and highly informed are o Generation X, Y and Millennial are not as involved in politics because negativity in political coverage in mass media Soft: Hard: 1960: 35% 65% 2000: 50% 50% Negative Ad% Election Coverage (%): 1970s: 20% 1980-25% 1980s: 40% 2000-60% 2000s: 50% 2008: 60% Voters will learn negative attributes through contrast in negative ads AND $1 towards negative ad will give candidate more airtime DEMOBILIZING: Making emotional appeals- experiment held text constant in ad; but changed visuals and music CONFERRING STATUS: status deference socially constructed ideas of status developed by mass media: role of blacks in mass media…communication environment shapes people’s understanding of groups tone of coverage negative v. positive terms (ex. teens in Philadelphia, coverage was overwhelmingly negative). Candidates need to establish themselves in the primary as someone who could win…frontrunner gets bandwagon support from people who are unsure who to vote for FRAMINGAnd problem or policy is very complicated…a frame is a simplified version of that policy Media selectively makes decisions to portray some arguments and not others - - - Ex) Affirmative Action: “discriminates against whites” v “gives African Americans benefits they haven’t earned” Ex) Framing of Poverty in the News: to what extent does the mass media depict poverty as a widespread structural problem OR as a personalized individual story o PERSONALIZING IS VERY COMMON BECAUSE HUMAN INTEREST STORIES ARE VIVID AND ENGAGING leads people to explain poverty in dispositional terms, blames individual and not structural ineffeciencies Prospect Theory= study on choice and decision making…theory of choice for ordinary individuals decision making by voters and the limitations of voters in that context- nonrational, subtle tendencies…heuristics and shortcuts that lead people to make irrational decisions o 1)People are risk averse in the domain of gains & risk seeking in the domain of loses o 2) Ratio of differences principle= utility of gain/loss depends on stating reference baseline point…diminishing return curve (1:2 bigger then 2:3) must look at difference in relative v. absolute gains NOT a rational framing effect o 3) People are loss averse: difference in utility from losses is more extreme than the increase in utility from gains ex) gaining $10 has lower utility of losing $10 Status Quo Bias if you can find policies that are aligned with status quo, more likely to win: incumbency advantage…more familiar is more advantageous ex) EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT: o Frame 1: help eliminate discrimination against women (LOSS FRAME) o Frame 2: help improve rights of women (GAIN FRAME) value loss frame instead of gain eliminating bad generates more support then producing a good - - - - - - - Because individuals rely on heuristics to make judgments, they are sometimes faulty Voters form predispositions based on trivial information (schema based biases based on heuristics) Issue Ownership Theory: o (i) in the minds of voters, parties have good/bad ownership on certain issues Democrats: good on lowering unemployment Republicans: good on crime fighting o (ii) sample heuristics: if problem faced by country owned by certain party, vote for that party source cues= statements about who favors/supports what…voters will make inferences/judgments on individuals based on what they support or don’t support o voters who had no information (aschematics) but relied on source cues made as good a decision as those who were very well informed o media can tell you which parties and elites hold what positions centrality- if an attribute is really important to the individual, they will weigh it more heavily PRIMING: classic cognitive model, by spending more time on an issue, media may prime those issues and make them more salient o Ex. “Seeing Black”- crime is an implicit prime for race Agenda Setting= priming certain issues, media may also shift the public’s priorities Emotional appeals: emotionally charged material affect how people perceive advertisements GROUP THINKING If description suggests a certain outcome, people are more likely to choose that, EVEN IF less probable o P(A*B) is thought to be more probable then P(A)…conjunctive fallacy People select option if it fits logic of what they would expect Homeopathy heuristic: treat problem w/cure like problem (match) o Ex) Cold War strategy….US matched missiles with USSR Illusion of Control- ex. gambling…situation where you have NO controldetermined by chance o If you are given the illusion of control, you will engage in much riskier behavior and over estimate the amount of control that you have Anchoring effect =accessible and available #s (or things/ideas) will come to mind more quickly and influence the rest of the responses/results Monotonicity heuristic= if something is good, more is better. If something is bad, less is better GROUP THINK: conformity pressures, stereotypes, o Ex Cuban Missile Crisis…decision makers stereotyped Castro as stupid and ill prepared- vastly underestimated him conformity to agree with the plan