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National-income accounting refers to the measurement of aggregate economic activity, particularly national income and its components. Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total market value of final goods and services produced within a nation’s borders in a given time period. (Usually a year) Total Market Value means the dollar value of every one of the good or service produced during the period of time. Final goods and service means that production is only counted in the final stage. This is to keep things such as a car’s engine from being counted twice. Gross National Product (GNP) refers to output produced by American-owned factors regardless of location. GDP refers to output produced within America’s borders. GDP is geographically focused, including all output produced within a nation’s borders regardless of whose factors of production are used to produce it. Japanese companies producing in America count, but not American companies abroad. GDP per capita is total GDP divided by total population–average GDP. GDP per capita is commonly used as a measure of a country’s standard of living. However, it is not always an accurate measure. There are three major exceptions when creating GDP. ◦ Non-Market Activities ◦ Unreported Incomes ◦ Intermediate Goods GDP measures exclude most goods and services produced that are not sold in the market. ◦ A homemaker who cleans, washes, gardens, shops and cooks produces goods of value. ◦ Because they are not exchanged in the market they are not included in GDP. The GDP statistics fail to capture market activities that are not reported to tax or census authorities. The underground economy is motivated by tax avoidance or to conceal illegal activities. Intermediate goods are goods or services purchased for use as input in the production of final goods or services. For example, the engine or chassis of a car are not counted, so as to keep them from being counted twice. Value added is the increase in the market value of a product that takes place at each stage of the production process. Stages of Production 1. Farmer grows wheat, sells it to miller Value of Transactions Value Added $0.12 $0.12 2. Miller converts wheat to flour, sells it to baker 0.28 0.16 3. Baker bakes bagel, sells it to bagel store 0.60 0.32 4. Bagel store sells bagel to consumer 0.75 0.15 $1.75 $0.75 Total Compute the value of the final output. Count only the value added at each stage of production. Nominal GDP is the value of final output produced in a given period, measured in the prices of that period. Real GDP is the value of final output produced in a given period, adjusted for changing prices. The base period is the time period used for comparative analysis. From this base year, we find the GDP deflator for other years. The GDP deflator is a measure of price changes over time. The general formula for computing real GDP is: nominal GDP in year t Real GDP in year t = price index $9,963 billion Real GDP in 2000 = $9,767 billion 1.02 GDP (billions of dollars per year) $10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 Nominal GDP 5000 4000 3000 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 2000 Changes in real GDP tell us how much the economy’s output is growing. Growth is at the expense of future output unless factors of production are replaced. Depreciation is the consumption of capital in the production process — the wearing out of plant and equipment. Net domestic product is the amount of output we could consume without reducing our stock of capital. NDP = GDP – depreciation Investment is spending on (production of) new plant, equipment, and structures (capital) in a given time period, plus changes in business inventories. The distinction between GDP and NDP is mirrored in the difference between gross investment and net investment. Gross investment is total investment expenditure in a given time period. Net investment is gross investment less depreciation. The stock of capital — the total collection of plant and equipment — will not grow unless gross investment exceeds depreciation. The GDP accounts also tell us what mix of output has been selected, that is, society’s answer to the core issue of WHAT to produce. The major uses of total output conform to the four sets of market participants: consumers, business firms, government, and foreigners. Goods and services used by households are called consumption goods. Consumer spending claims nearly two-thirds of our annual output. Investment goods are the plant, machinery, and equipment that we produce. Also includes net inventory changes and new residential construction. Resources purchased by the government sector are unavailable for consumption or investment purposes. Exports are goods and services sold to foreign buyers. Imports are goods and services purchased from foreign sources. Exports are added to GDP and imports are subtracted. Net Exports are the value of exports minus the value of imports. The value of GDP can be computed by adding up expenditures of market participants: GDP = C + I + G + (X – IM) Where: C = Consumption expenditure X = exports I = investment expenditure IM = imports G = government expenditure GDP accounts have two sides. ◦ One side focuses on expenditure – the demand side. ◦ The other side focuses on income – the supply side. VALUE OF OUTPUT VALUE OF INCOME Consumer spending Wages Investment spending Government spending Product market Factor market Profits Interest Rent Net exports Sales taxes Depreciation By charting the flow of income through the economy, we see FOR WHOM the output is produced. Depreciation charges reduce GDP to the level of NDP (Net Domestic Product) before any income is available to current factors of production. NDP = GDP – depreciation Wages, interest, and profits paid to foreigners are not part of U.S. income. They need to be subtracted from the income flow. Incomes earned by U.S. citizens in other nations represents an inflow of income to U.S. households and are added. Once depreciation charges and indirect business taxes are subtracted from GDP and net foreign income is added, we have national income. National income (NI) is total income earned by current factors of production. NI = NDP – indirect business taxes + net foreign factor income Personal income (PI) is the income received by households before payment of personal taxes. Personal income = National income – (corporate taxes + retained earnings + Social Security taxes) + (transfer payments + net interest) Disposable income (DI) is the after-tax income of households. It is personal income less personal taxes. Disposable income = personal income – personal taxes Saving is that part of disposable income not spent on current consumption –disposable income less consumption. All disposable income is either consumed or saved. Disposable income = Consumption + Saving Income flow Amount (in billions) Gross domestic product (GDP) $9,963 Less depreciation (1,257) Net domestic product (NDP) Less indirect business taxes National income (NI) Income flow National income (NI) Amount (in billions) 8,002 Less corporate taxes (284) 8,706 Less retained earnings (244) (770) Less Social Security taxes (827) 8,002 Plus transfer payments 1,068 Plus net interest 567 Personal income (PI) 8,282 Less personal taxes Disposable income (1,292) 6,990 To households, in the form of disposable income. To businesses, in the form of retained earnings and depreciation allowances. To government, in the form of taxes.