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Power Generation from
Renewable Energy Sources
Fall 2013
Instructor: Xiaodong Chu
Email：[email protected]
Office Tel.: 81696127
Flashbacks of Last Lecture
• Configurations of grid-connected PV systems
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PV array
Combiner box
Array disconnect switch
Maximum power tracker (MPPT)
Inverter
Breaker
• Protection design of grid-connected PV systems
– Islanding
– Reclosing
Flashbacks of Last Lecture
• Factors influencing performance of grid-connected
PV systems
– Mismatch
– Reclosing
Flashbacks of Last Lecture
• Example 9.6 of the textbook: you should master it!
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• A general stand-alone PV system includes a generator backup
as well as the possibility for some loads to be served directly
with more-efficient dc and others with ac
• A combination charger–inverter has the capability to convert
ac to dc or vice versa
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• Off-grid stand-alone PV systems must be designed with great
care to assure satisfactory performance
• Users must be willing to check and maintain batteries, they
must be willing to adjust their energy demands as weather
and battery charge vary, they may have to fuel and fix a noisy
generator, and they must take responsibility for the safe
operation of the system
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• The design process for stand-alone systems begins with an
estimate of the loads that are to be provided for
• The user may try to provide the capability to power
everything that grid-connected living allows
• Trade-offs are made between more expensive, but more
efficient, appliances and devices in exchange for fewer PVs
and batteries
– A key decision involves whether to use all dc loads to avoid the
inefficiencies associated with inverters, or whether the convenience of
an all ac system is worth the extra cost, or perhaps a combination of
the two is best
– Another important decision is whether to include a generator back-up
system and, if so, what fraction of the load it will have to supply
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
AC Micro- (Nano-) Grid
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
DC Micro- (Nano-) Grid
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• Power needed by a load, as well as energy required over time
by that load, is important for system sizing
• In the simplest case, energy (watt-hours or kilowatt-hours) is
just the product of some nominal power rating of the device
multiplied by the hours that it is in use
• The situation is often more complicated
– Many appliances use different amounts of power during different
portions of their operating cycle
– Many devices use power even while they are turned off since some
circuits remain energized awaiting the turn-on signal
– Major appliances encounter the surge of power required to start their
electric motors, which is important for sizing inverters, wires, fuses,
and other ancillary electrical components in the system
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• A inverter is needed for a stand-alone PV system to converter
dc PV power to ac power of load side
• When no load is present, a good inverter will power down to
less than 1 watt of standby power while it waits for something
to be turned on that needs ac
• When it senses a load, the inverter powers up and while it
runs on the order of 5–20 W of its own, which means those
standby losses associated with so many of electronic devices
may keep the inverter running continuously, even though no
real energy service is being delivered
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• Inverters are specified by their dc input voltage as well as by
their ac output voltage, continuous power handling capability,
and the amount of surge power they can supply for brief
periods of time
• The inverter’s dc input voltage, which is the same as the
voltage of the battery bank and the PV array, is called the
system voltage
– The system voltage is usually 12 V, 24 V, or 48 V
– One guideline is based on keeping the maximum steady-state current
drawn below around 100 A so that readily available electrical
hardware and wire sizes can be used
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• The maximum ac power that the inverter needs to deliver can
be estimated by adding the power demand of all of the loads
that will ever be anticipated to be operating simultaneously
• The most important specification for an inverter is the
amount of ac power that it can supply on a continuous basis
• It is also critically important that the inverter be able to supply
surges of current that occur when electric motors are started
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• Stand-alone systems obviously need some method to store
energy gathered during good times to be able to use it during
the bad
• While various exotic technologies are possible including
flywheels, compressed air, or even hydrogen production, it is
the battery that makes the most sense today
• Batteries provide several other important energy services for
PV systems
– Provide surges of current that are much higher than the instantaneous
current available from the array
– Control the output voltage of the array so that loads receive voltages
that are within their own range of acceptability
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• Energy storage in a battery is typically given in units of amphours (Ah) at some nominal voltage and at some specified
discharge rate
• A lead-acid battery, has a nominal voltage of 2 V per cell and
manufacturers typically specify the amp-hour capacity at a
discharge rate that would drain the battery down to 1.75 V
over a specified period of time at a temperature of 25◦C
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• Battery storage capacity is specified in amp-hours rather than
watt-hours
– A 200-Ah battery that is delivering 20 A is said to be discharging at a
C/10 rate, where the C refers to Ah of capacity and the 10 is hours it
would take to deplete (C/10 = 200 Ah/10 h = 20 A)
– Rapid draw-down of a battery results in lower Ah capacity, while long
discharge times result in higher Ah capacity
– Deep-cycle batteries intended for photovoltaic systems are often
specified in terms of their 20-h discharge rate (C/20), which is more or
less of a standard, as well as in terms of the much longer C/100 rate
that is more representative of how they are actually used
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• The amp-hour capacity of a battery is not only ratedependent, but also depends on temperature
• The combination of cold temperature effects on battery
performance—decreased capacity, decreased output voltage,
and increased vulnerability to freezing when discharged—
mean that lead-acid batteries need to be well protected in
cold climates
• However, the apparent improvement in battery capacity at
high temperatures does not mean that heat is good for a
battery
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• Battery efficiency is more easily expressed in terms of current
efficiency than in terms of energy efficiency
• Assume charging a battery with a constant current IC over a
period of time ΔTC during which time applied voltage is VC,
inputting energy
Ein  VC IC TC
• Suppose that the battery is discharged at current ID and
voltage VD over a period of time ΔTD, delivering energy
Eout  VD I D TD
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• The energy efficiency of the battery is
Eout VD I D TD
Energy Efficiency 

Ein VC I C TC
• If we recognize that current (A) times time (h) is Coulombs of
charge expressed as Ah, then
 V  I T   V  Ah 
Energy Efficiency   D  D D    D  out 
 VC  IC TC   VC   Ahin 
• The ratio of discharge voltage to charge voltage is called the
voltage efficiency of the battery, and the ratio of Ahout to Ahin
is called the Coulomb efficiency
Energy Efficiency  (Voltage efficiency)  (Coulomb efficiency)
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• If good weather could be counted on, battery sizing might
mean simply providing enough storage to carry the load
through the night and into the next day until the sun picks up
the load once again
• The usual case is one in which there are periods of time when
little or no sunlight is available and the batteries might have to
be relied on to carry the load for some number of days
• During those periods, there may be some flexibility in the
strategy to be taken
– Some noncritical loads might be reduced or eliminated; and if a
generator is part of the system, a trade-off between battery storage
and generator run times will be part of the design
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• Given the statistical nature of weather and the variability of
responses to inclement conditions, there are no set rules
about how best to size battery storage
• The key trade-off will be cost
• Sizing a storage system to meet the demand 99% of the time
can easily cost triple that of one that meets demand only 95%
of the time
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• A curve fitting technique could be used to approximate the
relationship between storage days and peak sun hours
• Would you like to have a try on some curve fitting problems?
– Many tools are available, e.g., Curve Fitting Toolbox of Matlab
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• The simplest PV–battery system consists of just a single
module connected to a battery and a DC load, with no charge
controller, inverter, or anything else to complicate things
• Such a system might provide someone with a bit of light at
night and maybe a few other simple amenities
• Some systems allow the battery to leak current back through
the PV module at night, which raises the question of whether
it might be worthwhile to add a blocking diode to prevent that
nightly discharge
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• The equivalent circuit of a single PV cell will help us analyze
the potential nighttime battery loss problem
• Ignoring the insignificant impact of the very small series
resistance and eliminating the ideal current source ISC because
the cell is in the dark at night
• Current through the diode in the equivalent circuit for a cell
(at 25◦C) is given
I d  I 0 (e38.9Vd  1)
Photovoltaic Systems–Stand-Alone PV
Systems
• The nighttime current from the battery through each cell will
be
I B  I d  I RP  I 0 (e38.9Vd  1) 
Vd
RP
where the voltage Vd across the diode will be equal to the
battery voltage VB divided by the number of cells n in the PV
module
• With this simple nighttime equivalent circuit, we can decide
how much leakage will occur from the battery through the
PVs