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Bitki Çeşitliliği
PowerPoint Lectures for
Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Bitki olmadan yaşam düşünülemez
• 3 milyar yıl öncesinde büyük ölçüde karada
yaşam yoktu
• 1.2 milyar yıl önce cyanobacteria
• 500 milyon yıl öce hayvan fungus ve bitki
• 290000 bitki çeşidi
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Karasal bitkiler yeşil alglerden
(Charophyta) köken almış
• Bitkiler de bazı yeşil, kırmızı,ve
kahverengi algler gibi çok
hücreli, ökaryot ve fotosentetik
• Selüloz H. çeperi (Dinoflagellat,
yeşil ve kahverengi alg)
• Klorofil a ve b (Dinoflagellat ve
Euglena)
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Charophyta ve bitkilerin paylaştığı 4 özellik
–
Selüloz üreten çember şeklinde yapı
–
Peroksizom enzimleri
–
Kamçılı sperm
–
Fragmoplast oluşumu
30 nm
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Genetik benzerlik
• Nuklear ve kloroplast DNA çalışmaları; bitki ve
Charophyta bezerlik fazla
(a) Chara,
a pond
organism
10 mm
40 µm
Figure 29.3a, b
(b) Coleochaete orbicularis, a diskshaped charophycean (LM)
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Bitki aleminin sınırları ???
Viridiplantae
Streptophyta
Plantae
Red algae
Figure 29.4
Chlorophytes Charophyceans Embryophytes
Ancestral alga
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Bitkilerde türemiş özellik
– Apikal meristem
– Döl almaşı (çok hücreli bağımlı embrio)
– Sporangiumlarda üretilen çeperli sporlar
– Multisellular gametangium
Bunlara ek olarak; Kutikül oluşumu,
sekonder metabolit üretimi başlamış
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Apical meristem ve döl almaşı
APICAL MERISTEMS
Apical
meristem
of shoot
Developing
leaves
Apical meristems of plant shoots
and roots. The light micrographs
are longitudinal sections at the tips
of a shoot and root.
Apical meristem
of root
Shoot
Root
100 µm
100 µm
Haploid multicellular
organism (gametophyte)
Mitosis
Mitosis
n
n
n
ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS
Spores
n
n
Gametes
MEIOSIS
FERTILIZATION
2n
Figure 29.5
2n
Zygote
Mitosis
Diploid multicellular
organism (sporophyte)
Alternation of generations: a generalized scheme
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Sporangiumlarda üretilen çeperli sporlar; multisellular
gametangium, çok hücreli bağımlı embrio
WALLED SPORES PRODUCED IN SPORANGIA
Spores
Sporangium
Sporophyte and sporangium
of Sphagnum (a moss)
Longitudinal section of
Sphagnum sporangium (LM)
Sporophyte
Gametophyte
MULTICELLULAR GAMETANGIA
Female gametophyte
Archegonium
with egg
Antheridium
with sperm
Archegonia and antheridia
of Marchantia (a liverwort)
Male
gametophyte
MULTICELLULAR, DEPENDENT EMBRYOS
Embryo and placental
transfer cell of Marchantia
Figure 29.5
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Embryo
Maternal tissue
2 µm
10 µm
Wall ingrowths
Placental transfer cell
• Fosilleşmiş spor ve bitki dokusu
– 475-milyon yaşındaki taştan elde edilmis
(a) Fossilized spores.
Unlike the spores of
most living plants,
which are single
grains, these spores
found in Oman are
in groups of four
(left; one hidden)
and two (right).
(b) Fossilized
Figure 29.6 a, b
sporophyte tissue.
The spores were
embedded in tissue
that appears to be
from plants.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Günümüzde yaşayan önemli bitki grupları
Table 29.1
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•
Karasal bitkiler iletim dokularının olup olmamasına göre
sınıflandırılabilir
Land plants
Vascular plants
Figure 29.7
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Angiosperms
Origin of seed plants
(about 360 mya)
Origin of vascular
plants (about 420 mya)
Origin of land plants
(about 475 mya)
Ancestral
green alga
Seed plants
Gymnosperms
Pterophyte
(ferns, horsetails, whisk fern)
Seedless vascular plants
Lycophytes
(club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts)
Mosses
Hornworts
Liverworts
Charophyceans
Bryophytes
(nonvascular plants)
Bryofit (İletim Demetsiz Bitki)
• Yapraksı karayosunları ve iletim demetsiz diğer
bitkilerin yaşam döngüsünde Gametofit faz
baskındır
• Bryofitlerde 3 şube
– Liverworts (Hepatophyta)
– Hornworts (Anthocerophyta)
– Mosses (Bryophyta) (İletim demetli bitki
grubuna en yakın)
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Bryofit Gametofitleri
• Bütün bryofitlerde ; Haplod gametofitler, sporofitlere oranla
daha büyük ve daha uzun süre yaşar
Raindrop
1
Spores develop into
threadlike protonemata.
Key
Male
gametophyte
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Sperm
“Bud”
2 The haploid
protonemata
produce “buds”
that grow into
gametophytes.
Protonemata
4 A sperm swims
through a film of
moisture to an
archegonium and
fertilizes the egg.
Antheridia
3 Most mosses have separate
male and female gametophytes,
with antheridia and archegonia,
respectively.
“Bud”
Egg
Spores
Gametophore
Female
Archegonia
gametophyte
spores develop in the sporangium
of the sporophyte. When the
Rhizoid
sporangium lid pops off, the
peristome “teeth” regulate
6 The sporophyte grows a
gradual release of the spores.
long stalk, or seta, that emerges
Seta
from the archegonium.
8 Meiosis occurs and haploid
Peristome
Sporangium
MEIOSIS
Mature
Mature
sporophytes
sporophytes
Capsule
(sporangium)
FERTILIZATION
(within archegonium)
Calyptra
Zygote
Embryo
Foot
Archegonium
Young
sporophyte
Capsule with
peristome (LM)
Female
gametophytes
Figure 29.8
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Attached by its foot, the
sporophyte remains nutritionally
dependent on the gametophyte.
7
5 The diploid zygote
develops into a
sporophyte embryo within
the archegonium.
• Bryofit gametofit
– Anteridyumda flagellalı sperm
– Arkegonyumda yumurta
• Bazı karayosunları
– Gövdenin orta kısmında iletim demetlerine
sahip olabilir bu sayede vertikal uzayabilir
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Bryofit Sporofitleri
• Bryophyte sporofit
– Arkegonyum üzerinde gelişir
– Küçük ve basit
– Ayak, sap ve sporangium (kapsül) içerir
• Hornwort ve karayosun sporofitleri stomaya
sahip
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Bryofit diversity
Gametophore of
female gametophyte
LIVERWORTS (PHYLUM HEPATOPHYTA)
Plagiochila
deltoidea,
a “leafy”
liverwort
Foot
Seta
Marchantia sporophyte (LM)
HORNWORTS (PHYLUM ANTHOCEROPHYTA)
An Anthoceros
hornwort species
Sporophyte
Sporangium
500 µm
Marchantia polymorpha,
a “thalloid” liverwort
MOSSES (PHYLUM BRYOPHYTA)
Polytrichum commune,
hairy-cap moss
Sporophyte
Gametophyte
Gametophyte
Figure 29.9
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Tohumsuz Iletim Demetli Bitki (Fern, Eğrelti otu)
• Fern ve diğer tohumsuz iletim demetli bitkiler
ormanların ilk halini olusturur
• Bağımsız ve dallanan sporofit
Figure 29.11
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Tohumsuz iletim demetli bitki sınıflandırması
– Lycophyta (Kibrit otu): club mosses, spike mosses,
epifit
– Pterophyta: fern (eğrelti), atkuyruğu
LYCOPHYTES (PHYLUM LYCOPHYTA)
Strobili
(clusters of
sporophylls)
Isoetes
gunnii,
a quillwort
Selaginella apoda,
a spike moss
Diphasiastrum tristachyum, a club moss
PTEROPHYTES (PHYLUM PTEROPHYTA)
Psilotum
nudum,
a whisk
fern
Equisetum
arvense,
field
horsetail
Athyrium
filix-femina,
lady fern
Vegetative stem
Strobilus on
fertile stem
Figure 29.14
WHISK FERNS AND RELATIVES
HORSETAILS
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FERNS
Sporofit baskın
• Bryofitlerden farklı olarak
– Tohumsuz iletim demetli bitkilerin (fern)
sporofit fazı daha baskın
– Gametofit narin, küçük, toprak yüzeyinde veya
altında
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The life cycle of a fern
1 Sporangia release spores.
Most fern species produce a single
type of spore that gives rise to a
bisexual gametophyte.
Key
2 The fern spore
develops into a small,
photosynthetic gametophyte.
3 Although this illustration
shows an egg and sperm
from the same gametophyte,
a variety of mechanisms
promote cross-fertilization
between gametophytes.
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Antheridium
Spore
MEIOSIS
Young
gametophyte
Sporangium
Archegonium
Mature
sporophyte
New
sporophyte
Sperm
Egg
Zygote
Sporangium
FERTILIZATION
Sorus
6 On the underside
of the sporophyte‘s
reproductive leaves
are spots called sori.
Each sorus is a
cluster of sporangia.
Gametophyte
Fiddlehead
Figure 29.12
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
5 A zygote develops into a new
sporophyte, and the young plant
grows out from an archegonium
of its parent, the gametophyte.
4 Fern sperm use flagella
to swim from the antheridia
to eggs in the archegonia.
Ksilem ve Floem
•
İletim demetli bitkilerdeki doku
–
•
•
Xylem and phloem
Xylem
–
su ve mineral
–
trakeid
Phloem
–
şeker, amino acid, ve diğer organic
madde
–
canlı hücre
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Sporofil ve Spor Varyasyonu
• Sporofil
– Sporangium tasıyan modifiye yaprak
• Cogu tohumsuz iletim demetli bitki (Fern, kibrit
otu, Atkuyruğu)
– homospor, tek tip spor, biseksuel gametofit
• Tohumlu
–
heterospor, iki cesit spor, erkek ve dişi
gametofit
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Tohumlu Bitkiler (İletim Demetli)
• Gimnosperm, Angiosperm
• İndirgenmiş gametofit polen ve ovulde korunur
(Ebevyn sporofitte özel dokularca çevrili)
• Tohumlara ilave olarak, şu özellikler var
– İndirgenmis gametofit
– Heterospor
– Ovul
– Polen
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Gametofit/sporofit ilişki
Sporophyte
(2n)
Sporophyte
(2n)
Gametophyte
(n)
(a) Sporophyte dependent
on gametophyte
(mosses and other
bryophytes).
Gametophyte
(n)
(b) Large sporophyte and
small, independent
gametophyte (ferns
and other seedless
vascular plants).
Microscopic female
gametophytes (n) in
ovulate cones
(dependent)
Microscopic male
gametophytes (n)
inside these parts
of flowers
(dependent)
Microscopic male
gametophytes (n)
in pollen cones
(dependent)
Figure 30.2a–c
Sporophyte (2n)
(independent)
(c) Reduced gametophyte dependent on sporophyte
(seed plants: gymnosperms and angiosperms).
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Microscopic
female
gametophytes (n)
inside these parts
of flowers
(dependent)
Sporophyte (2n),
the flowering plant
(independent)
Ovul ve Yumurta üretimi
• Ovul içinde
– megasporangium, megaspore, ve koruyucu
integumentler, yumurta (n)
Integument
Spore wall
Megasporangium
(2n)
Megaspore (n)
Figure 30.3a
(a) Unfertilized ovule. In this sectional
view through the ovule of a pine (a
gymnosperm), a fleshy
megasporangium is surrounded by a
protective layer of tissue called an
integument. (Angiosperms have two
integuments.)
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Pollen ve Sperm üretimi
• Mikrosporangium, microspor; pollen (n)
• Polinasyon
– Pollenin ovule transferi
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• Germination olursa
– 2 sperm taşıyan polen tüpü ovul içindeki dişi
gametofite ulaşır
Female
gametophyte (n)
Egg nucleus (n)
Spore wall
Male gametophyte
(within germinating
pollen grain) (n)
Discharged
sperm nucleus (n)
Micropyle
Figure 30.3b
Pollen grain (n)
(b) Fertilized ovule. A megaspore develops into a
multicellular female gametophyte. The micropyle,
the only opening through the integument, allows
entry of a pollen grain. The pollen grain contains a
male gametophyte, which develops a pollen tube
that discharges sperm.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Tohumun evrimdeki avantajı
• Tohum
– Tüm ovulden oluşur
– Koruyucu doku, embriyo, besi doku
Seed coat
(derived from
Integument)
Food supply
(female
gametophyte
tissue) (n)
Embryo (2n)
(new sporophyte)
Figure 30.3c
(c) Gymnosperm seed. Fertilization initiates
the transformation of the ovule into a seed,
which consists of a sporophyte embryo, a
food supply, and a protective seed coat
derived from the integument.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Gimnosperm
• çıplak tohum (kozalak)
• en iyi örnek koniferler
• Sube
– Cycadophyta
– Gingkophyta
– Gnetophyta
– Coniferophyta
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
PHYLUM CYCADOPHYTA
PHYLUM GINKGOPHYTA
Cycas revoluta
PHYLUM GNETOPHYTA
Gnetum
Welwitschia
Ovulate cones
Ephedra
Figure 30.4
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Douglas fir
Common juniper
PHYLUM CYCADOPHYTA
Wollemia pine
Pacific
yew
Bristlecone pine
Figure 30.4
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Sequoia
İğne yapraklılıların yaşam döngüsü
*sporofit baskın *fertilize olmuş ovülden tohum oluşumu *polenin ana rolü; spermi ovüle taşımak
2
An ovulate cone scale has two
ovules, each containing a megasporangium. Only one ovule is shown.
Key
1 In most
conifer species,
each tree has
both ovulate
and pollen
cones.
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Ovule
Pollen
cone
Integument
Longitudinal
section of
ovulate cone
Microsporocytes
(2n)
Mature
sporophyte
(2n)
MEIOSIS
Longitudinal
section of
Sporophyll
pollen cone Microsporangium
Seedling
A pollen grain
enters through
the micropyle
and germinates,
forming a pollen
tube that slowly
digests
through the
megasporangium.
4
Megasporocyte (2n)
Ovulate
cone
Micropyle
Megasporangium
Germinating
pollen grain
Pollen
grains (n)
MEIOSIS
(containing male
gametophytes)
5
While the
pollen tube
develops, the
megasporocyte
(megaspore
mother cell)
undergoes meiosis,
producing four
haploid cells. One
survives as a
megaspore.
Surviving
megaspore (n)
3 A pollen cone contains many microsporangia
held in sporophylls. Each microsporangium Germinating
contains microsporocytes (microspore mother pollen grain
cells). These undergo meiosis, giving rise to
Archegonium
haploid microspores that develop into
Egg (n)
Integument
pollen grains.
Female
Seeds on surface
gametophyte
of ovulate scale
Germinating
pollen grain (n)
8 Fertilization usually occurs more
than a year after pollination. All eggs
may be fertilized, but usually only one
zygote develops into an embryo. The
ovule becomes a seed, consisting of an
embryo, food supply, and seed coat.
Figure 30.6
Embryo
(new sporophyte)
(2n)
Food reserves
(gametophyte
tissue) (n)
Seed coat
(derived from
parent
sporophyte) (2n)
Pollen
tube
FERTILIZATION
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The female gametophyte
6
develops within the megaspore
and contains two or three
archegonia, each with an egg.
Discharged
sperm nucleus (n)
7
Egg nucleus (n)
By the time the eggs are mature,
two sperm cells have developed in the
pollen tube, which extends to the
female gametophyte. Fertilization occurs
when sperm and egg nuclei unite.
Angiosperm
• Angiospermler çiçek ve meyveye sahip
(evrimsel adaptasyon için önemli)
• Çiçekli bitkiler olarak bilinir
• En yayın ve diverse olan grup
• Üreme organları çiçek ve meyve
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Çiçek (Flower)
• Çiçek yapı
– Sepal
– Petal
– Stamen
– Carpels (pistil)
Carpel
Stigma
Anther
Stamen
Style
Ovary
Filament
Petal
Sepal
Receptacle
Figure 30.7
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Ovule
Meyve (Fruit)
• Olgunlaşmış ovary
(a) Tomato, a fleshy fruit with
soft outer and inner layers
of pericarp
(b) Ruby grapefruit, a fleshy fruit
with a hard outer layer and
soft inner layer of pericarp
(c) Nectarine, a fleshy
fruit with a soft outer
layer and hard inner
layer (pit) of pericarp
Figure 30.8a–e
(d) Milkweed, a dry fruit that
splits open at maturity
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
(e) Walnut, a dry fruit that
remains closed at maturity
• Taşınma şekilleri
(a)
Wings enable maple fruits
to be easily carried by the wind.
Figure 30.9a–c
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
(b)
Seeds within berries and other
edible fruits are often dispersed
in animal feces.
(c)
The barbs of cockleburs
facilitate seed dispersal by
allowing the fruits to
“hitchhike” on animals.
Angiospermlerde yaşam döngüsü
– double fertilization; 2 sperm polen tüpü ile
ovüldeki dişi gametofite girer
– bir sperm dişi gametofitteki yumurtayla, diğeri
merkezde yer alan 2 nukleusla birleşir
(endosperm)
– endosperm fotosetez aşamasına kadar (filiz)
embriyoyu besler
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Key
1
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Anthers contain microsporangia.
Each microsporangium contains microsporocytes (microspore mother cells) that
divide by meiosis, producing microspores.
Microsporangium
Anther
Microsporocytes (2n)
Mature flower on
sporophyte plant
(2n)
2
Microspores form
pollen grains (containing
male gametophytes). The
generative cell will divide
to form two sperm. The
tube cell will produce the
pollen tube.
MEIOSIS
Microspore (n)
Ovule with
megasporangium (2n)
7 When a seed
germinates, the
embryo develops
into a mature
sporophyte.
Generative cell
Tube cell
Male gametophyte
(in pollen grain)
Ovary
Stigma
3
In the megasporangium
of each ovule, the
megasporocyte divides by
meiosis and produces four
megaspores. The surviving
megaspore in each ovule
forms a female gametophyte
Seed
(embryo sac).
Embryo (2n)
Endosperm
(food
Supply) (3n)
6 The zygote
develops into an
embryo that is
packaged along
with food into a
seed. (The fruit
tissues surrounding the seed are
not shown).
Pollen
grains
MEIOSIS
Germinating
Seed
Megasporangium
(n)
Pollen
tube
Sperm
Surviving
megaspore
(n)
Seed coat (2n)
Pollen
tube
Style
Female gametophyte
(embryo sac)
Antipodal cells
Polar nuclei
Synergids
Egg (n)
Pollen
tube
Zygote (2n)
Nucleus of
developing
endosperm
(3n)
Egg
Nucleus (n)
Sperm
(n)
After pollination, eventually
two sperm nuclei
are discharged in
each ovule.
4
FERTILIZATION
5
Figure 30.10
Double fertilization occurs. One sperm
fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote. The
other sperm combines with the two polar
nuclei to form the nucleus of the endosperm,
which is triploid in this example.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Discharged
sperm nuclei (n)
Fosil Angiosperm
– Hem gelişömiş hemde primitiv özellik
Carpel
Stamen
5 cm
(a) Archaefructus sinensis, a 125-million-yearold fossil.
(b) Artist’s reconstruction of
Archaefructus sinensis
Figure 30.11a, b
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Monokot ve dikot
EUDICOTS
MONOCOTS
Monocot
Characteristics
Orchid
(Lemboglossum
fossii)
Eudicot
Characteristics
California
poppy
(Eschscholzia
californica)
Embryos
One cotyledon
Two cotyledons
Leaf
venation
Veins usually
netlike
Veins usually
parallel
Pygmy date palm
(Phoenix roebelenii)
Pyrenean oak
(Quercus
pyrenaica)
Stems
Lily (Lilium
“Enchantment”)
Vascular tissue
usually arranged
in ring
Vascular tissue
scattered
Roots
Barley (Hordeum vulgare),
a grass
Root system
Usually fibrous
(no main root)
Dog rose (Rosa canina), a wild rose
Taproot (main root)
usually present
Pea (Lathyrus
nervosus,
Lord Anson’s
blue pea), a
legume
Pollen
Pollen grain with
one opening
Pollen grain with
three openings
Flowers
Anther
Stigma
Filament
Figure 30.12
Ovary
Floral organs
usually in
multiples of three
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Floral organs usually
in multiples of
four or five
Zucchini
(Cucurbita
Pepo), female
(left) and
male flowers